Religion and violence

After the death of the Prophet of Islam, Muhammed, in 632, the question of his succession produced a debate around the designation of the Caliph (al-khalifa), a political-religious institution. The historian Hicham Djait, author of The Great Discord, the outstanding work on this, believes that the principal issues which pertain to societies under Muslim authority arose in this crucial developmental historical period: Who should be the Caliph? What are the conditions of succession? What are the criteria for choosing the candidate and what are the sources of reference for arriving at these criteria? Should the members of the Prophet's family take precedence over others?

Abu Bakr Al-Sadiq^[1] was designated the first Caliph over Ali bin Abi Talib^[2] ; he had to contend with a rebellion of the tribes who denied his authority and whom he suppressed by force. His successor, Umar^[3] , attempted to cement a constitution for this Muslim “state”, but he was killed in 544 by a Persian Christian slave. Uthman^[4] was chosen as the third Caliph, but he was accused of nepotism and he had to contend with growing opposition from the people of Medina. Revolts broke out, leading to the assassination of the Caliph, murdered in his own home. The designation of Ali was carried out in unclear circumstances that are the subject to dispute.

This was the “great Discord” (655-661). The legitimacy of the fourth Caliph was contested by Aisha^[5], one of the widows of the Prophet of Islam. She demanded vengeance for the spilled blood of Uthman, encouraged by the support of two of the Companions of Muhammed^[6]. The battle known as that of the “camel” (656) ended with the victory of Ali . But the governor of Damascus, Muawiya^[7] took over the leadership of the opposition. The battle of Siffin (657), in which Muslims fought against each other once more, was very bloody according to later accounts. Afterwards, the governor offered the Caliph mediation, which was accepted. A section of his supporters refused this solution, they left (kharaju) the alliance – from which they are given the name Kharijites. They fought Ali and the members of his party who had remained faithful – shi'at Ali, from which is derived the name Shi'ite. It was a Kharijite who assassinated the fourth Caliph, but his companions lacked the armed forces necessary to sustain their conception of the Caliphate. The main conflict was then carried on between Ali's sons, Hasan^[8] and Hussein^[9] on one side, and Muawiya, founder of the Umayyad dynasty, who ultimately prevailed.

Violence and fear, and civil war, are thus a feature since the era of the first four Caliphs, and are described as “well directed” by the “people of the community of tradition (Sunna)”, from whence the name Sunnis. From that time they became the most important group from the point of view of the number of their faithful and the exercise of power. For them, the person or group practising “illegitimate” violence has automatically left the right religious path delineated by the Qu'ran and the Sunna. Thus, according to Al-Sharastani^[10] , “a Kharijite is any person who revolts against the leader [in this case, Ali] around whom Muslims are united.” The Kharijites are considered by the Sunnis and the Shi'ites as violent dissidents, representing the very first factions which appeared in early Islam. They later divided into a multitude of groups. The Kharijites recognise the legitimacy only of the first two Caliphs and although they share common foundations, they say that the Muslims, including the Companions of the Prophet of Islam, committed 'great sins', branding them takfir^[11] and defending the obligation to revolt against unjust or debauched leadership. The Shi'ites recognise only the legitimacy of Ali as his direct descendant.

This internecine war between Muslims at the origins of Islam has left a profound mark on memory. From that time to this, the three branches – Sunni, Shi'ite and Kharijite – have never been able to arrive at a consensus in relation to legitimate authority. The Kharijites established themselves in the extreme west of North Africa (modern Morocco), but they were defeated and completely disappeared from that region. They remain only in M'zab (in the south of modern Algeria) and in the south east of the Arabian Peninsula (in modern Oman). As for the Shi'ites, they supported ruling dynasties, for example in Egypt, for two centuries, but they were able to maintain a lasting presence only in Persia from the sixteenth century. In conflict with Sunni authorities, they had organisations known for the use of violence and terror, such as the sect known as the 'Assassins', who operated between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries.