Politics Religion and State building (11th – 16th/19th centuries)

Introduction

Emir[1] Fakhr al-Din (1572-1635) is a high figure in the history of the Eastern end of the Mediterranean in the 17th century. Within the Ottoman Empire divided in vilayets[2] themselves subdivided into sandjaks[3],he succeeded in setting up a powerful proto-state entity, embracing what, in the 20th century, would become Lebanon along with some of the surrounding regions. He took advantage of the wars waged by the Ottoman Empire to extend his power and set up the administrative structures he needed. A Druze[4] by faith, he secured the support of the Maronites[5] whose protection he guaranteed. He established relations with Europe, notably signing with Florence an accord the trading nature of which concealed secret articles dealing with military issues. His policies aroused Ottoman fears and they organised a campaign against the Emir, jailed him prior to execution in Constantinople on 13 April 1635. The episode belongs in the context of a Druze revolt spanning two centuries (16th – 17th): it was concluded on the death in 1697 of Ahmad Ma'an[6] who left no male heir.

Map of the Ottoman Empire

The Emir's reign stretches over a long period of time but historians cannot avail themselves of writings he authored – whether decrees or correspondence – that could give an insight on a conception of power according to Fakhr al-Din. The Ottoman archives have but scarce information to impart. There are allusions to the emir of Safed (illustration pending authorisations) but his role in the revolt is not highlighted. The loyalty of the Emir towards the Sultan is also what emerges from two chronicles reporting on the relationships of Fakhr al-Din with the communities extent within the emirate as well as with foreign powers. The first is Ahmad al-Khalidi al-Safadi[7] who became close to the Emir when the latter's renown grew; having earned his confidence he was entrusted with several missions and with committing the facts to paper. His Works include the chronicle of the years 1021-1043 of Hijra (1612-1624) ; the dispute between the emir and Hafiz Ahmed Pasha[8] ; the exile of Fakhr al-Din in the Italian peninsula (1613) then his return in 1618; his victories over his opponents, particularly the routing of Yusuf Sayfa[9],pasha of Tripoli. The second chronicler is Estephan el Douaihy[10], former pupil of the Maronite College in Rome, polyglot, theologian, liturgist, apologist upholding the orthodoxy of his community, prolific writer who had his writings translated into Latin. He has left us several books two of which touch on the reign of the emir: a History of the Maronite Community and The Annals of the Great Patriarch Estephan El Douaihy also known as History of the Centuries.

  1. Emir

    Prince, title based on the Arabic verb amara to command, to order. In tribal systems, it is worn by the group leader. In a province of the Ottoman Empire, it was the highest function. The emir ensured security for all, personally or otherwise, he ran the administration, managed the finances. A vassal of the Porte, he paid it a yearly tribute accounting for the tax paid by the emirate's people regardless of faith or clan.

  2. Vilayet

    Ottoman province ruled by a governor (wali) appointed by the sultan

  3. Sandjak

    Adminstrative subdivision of an Ottoman Vilayet, under the control of a sanjakbey who took military and civilian commands.

  4. Druze

    Followers of a Shi'a doctrine derived from Ismailism to which are added specific texts and references; they became organised under the rule of the Fatimid dynasty in the 11th century. The esoteric content of their teaching revolves around Caliph al-Hakim identified as universal intellect or ‘aql. The first figures to preach the new doctrine are Nashtakin ad-Darazi (hence the term “Druze”), a Turk and Hamza ibn Ali, native of Persia. The death of the Caliph in 1021 saw the disappearance of the movement in Egypt and its spreading around Mount Hermon's peasantry. The Druze form a closed community with its own customs. It is divided between the “knowledgeable initiate” and the “ignorant”, the former duty-bound to observe seven commandments. The Druze have upheld some features of the Muslim faith but they attend secret meetings in specific places of worship. They await the return of al-Hakim and Hamza who must restore justice in this world.

    The Druze flourished mostly on Mount Lebanon were a few families such as the Buhturs / Tanukhs settled on the heights of Beirut and gained notoriety in the fight against the Franks (Europeans). The Ma'ans established an actual dynasty upon the advent of the Ottomans, they co-opted aristocratic families like the Jumblatts, the Arslans, set up an emirate in Lebanon and some of its neighbouring regions and integrated the Christians in the regime's fabric. Under the Shihabs, aristocratic families exercised power over regions of henceforth mixed populations. The Egypto-Ottoman conflict and the interference of the European powers broke the union between Druze and Maronites and brought about the fall of the emirate in 1840. A part of the community moved to Hauran in Syria in the 19th century and managed to hold their own against the Turks on the eve of the First World War and against the French Mandate between 1925 and 1927. Their name has passed to the region known as Jabal al-Druze and they have continued to play a key role at each turning point of Syria's history. Another community thrived in Palestine and sided with the State of Israel where the Druze are the only Arabs to serve in the IDF. The three communities have their own spiritual hierarchy which gives primacy to the Lebanese branch; they maintain with each other and with the Diaspora an exemplary solidarity.

  5. Maronite

    Eastern Christians attached to the tradition of Maron (4th/5th century) considered as the founding saint and leader of an acetic community settled around Apamea in the Orontes valley (in current-day Syria). After his death (c. 410), followers lived around a monastery where they kept up his teaching and memory. Between 702 and 742, the Maronites took the initiative of electing as their own patriarch to the see of Antioch, the monk John Marun, considered the actual founder of the Maronite church. Condemned by Byzantine Christians (Chalcedonians) and Syriac Christians (Monophysites), the Maronites lost Byzantium's protection and its army, according to Maronite tradition massacred hundreds of monks. To escape persecutions, Patriarch John Maron decided to take refuge on Mount Lebanon. In the 11th century a majority of Maronites had settled in the mountain valleys of Northern Lebanon. From the 12th century, the Maronite church stated its communion with the Roman Catholic church and its Patriarch took part in the Lateran Council of 1215.This connection was reinforced by the creation in the 16th century of the Maronite College in Rome. In the modern era, the Maronite community worked towards the creation of the Lebanese State and played a major part – albeit diluted since 1989 – in ruling it. It enjoys the support of a strong Diaspora.

  6. Ahmad Ma'an

    The grand-son of Emir Yunus, Fakhr al-Din's younger brother he was the last Ma'anite emir who reigned from 1658 to 1697. He reinstated the relations with Tuscany, led a revolt against the Ottomans and succeeded in holding on to the throne until his death in 1697. The Ma'an's dynasty died with him.

  7. Ahmad al-Khalidi al-Safadi

    Ahmad bin Muhamad bin Yusuf al-Khalidi al-Safadi was born in Safad. His date of birth is not known but he is known to have died in 1625. He went to Cairo to study at Al Azhar University: fiqh (jurisprudence), tafsir (the commentary of the Quran), the Hadith (tradition as a record of the deeds and sayings of the Prophet of Islam), history and prosody. Upon his return home, he became a teacher, a judge, a mufti and a writer.

  8. Hafiz Ahmed Pasha

    Hafiz Ahmed Pasha was governor of Damascus between 1612 and 1615. “Pasha” is an honorary title added after the name of those high ranking Ottoman dignitaries to whom it was granted. This title was not hereditary and became the apanage of provincial governors and central government's viziers.

  9. Yusuf Sayfa

    He was a Kurd emir from the Sayfa family who had settled in the Akkar, north of Tripoli. He was placed in charge of Tripoli with the title of Pasha in 1579 and held on to his post until his death in 1642. He was the leader of the yamanite party and clashed with Fakhar al-Din on several occasions.

  10. Estephan al Douaihy (1644-1704)

    Born in Ehden. He was sent to the Maronite College in Rome by Patriarch Gewargios I (George) Omaira (1633-1644). He stayed there for 14 years. A priest in 1656, he was ordained bishop of Cyprus in 1668 then Patriarch in 1670.

    In the 19th century, in the context of clashes between Druze and Maronite, Tannous al Shidyac would put a different spin on the story, writing that Qorqmaz' sons were entrusted to Ibrahim Abou Sakr el Khazen, a prominent Kersouan Maronite.

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