Politics Religion and State building (11th – 16th/19th centuries)

Arab dynasty rooted in the Banu Tamim tribe and settled in the Maghreb. Between 800 and 909, its authority stretched to the south of the Italian peninsula and the Mediterranean islands of Corsica, Sardinia, Malta and Sicily. Faithful for a time to the Abbasid dynasty they later proclaimed their independence.

This term refers to peasant unrest in 19th century Lebanon. The peasants' movement gave voice to social claims framed in manifestos calling for the defence of the public interest, if necessary by force. This materialised in repeat uprisings in 1820-21, 1840, and 1858-59.

Anabaptists were given that name because they did not accept the baptism of infants. Anabaptism is an extreme implementation of the movement set off by Luther. Its adepts await the end of the world in fraternity, equality and bereft of worldly goods. Their observance of Biblical teaching forbids them to give oaths as well as to get involved in political life. The most radicals were destroyed in interfaith strife and the most pacific survive under diverse denominations.

The period in French history corresponding to monarchic government prior to 1789.

The current term used in reference to the Arabic term al-Andalus used in the Middle Ages in the Muslim-Arab world to refer to the Iberian Peninsula and the Muslim powers governing it. In this context, the term refers to the southern region of the Iberian Peninsula retaken in the 13th century from the Almohad caliphate.

A fief granted by the King to his younger sons as a share of the inheritance passed on for the most part to the elder son who became the King when his father died. The apanage system was set up to prevent splitting the kingdom among the Crown Princes.

Al-assabiyya is fundamental to Ibn Khaldun's theoretical thinking: it is the human interconnection fundamental in desert nomadic societies, that is the initial tribal basis upon which it is possible to build a state in the Maghreb.

He was the prosecuting magistrate and represented the Commune's interests.

Blessing, charisma; the ability to channel God's powers and blessings into the world.

Bataille a fighting block made up with knights, the main body of a medieval army.

An oath of allegiance, as was originally concluded between the “Imam” and the “Umma” as a principle of the faith. It became a legal and social contract between al rais (the prince, the leader) and the people.

An ecclesiastical office to which the revenue from an endowment is attached.

The word “bishop” has come from the Proto-Germanic biskopas, biskupaz from Vulgar Latin biscopus, from Latin episcopus (“overseer, supervisor”), from Ancient Greek ἐπίσκοπος (episkopos, “overseer”). It is to be understood as moderator, tutor in charge of an organisation. The bishop was a cleric in charge of a diocese. Before the Christian era, the word was applied to all sorts of administrators in the civil and financial spheres in the military and the judiciary.

The burghers were foreigners or habitants who were directly admitted into the bourgeoisie for a consideration or in acknowledgment of service rendered to the city. Their descent would be citizen. They had the same political rights as the citizens baring eligibility to the Little Council.

Act of alliance or treaty whereby a city or town extended the freedom of the city to another town, a convent or a private person (to wit a lord enjoying feudal and land rights) or a group such as a guild. This could be granted in perpetuity or on a renewable basis. The treaty was sealed by a solemn oath. Verburgrechteten gained entitlement to the burghers' privileges: military and legal protection, access to markets. In exchange they provided the city with troop, income, influence on external decisions and improved supply to their markets.

The duchy of Burgundy the capital city of which was Dijon. The dukes, heirs to a cadet branch of the Capetian house were powerful vassals in Philip's France. Not to be confused with the county of Burgundy, further east and under the control of the Holy Roman empire.

Calvinism applies to the doctrine of the churches founded by Jean Calvin (cf. entry and chaps I and II D) essentially in France and the Low Countries but also in Poland and Hungary. Close to Luther in many respects, Calvin is more radical on the issue of the Lord's Supper (cf. entry) and more insistent on the Churches' independence.

Zwinglianism (cf. entry Zwingli): springing in Zurich, is even more radical, restricting the Lord's Supper to a pure symbol but it more readily allows public authorities some sway over the Church. The two trends had, as early as 1540, operated a rapprochement and did not fight each other.

Church law regarding faith and discipline, drawn from council and pontifical decrees passed since the 4th century.

In order to obtain the pope's pardon, Henry IV undertook a forced march across the Alps in order to meet the pope who had taken refuge in the castle of Canossa. For three days the Emperor stood bare-foot at the castle gate, in a penitent's hair shirt (25-27 January). The pope could hardly do other than admitting him in and he absolved him on 28 January against a promise to go to Germany and settle personally the dispute between the king and the princes. The nobles decided to ignore the pontifical pardon and went on to elect Rudolf of Rheinfelden.

1626 was a turning point for the Capuchin order's mission in the East. This offshoot of the Franciscan order founded by Francis of Assisi left Constantinople to settle in Beirut near the covered market of the Nourié Souk in a hovel belonging to the Maronites. First ministering to the Franks (the name given Western incomers), they were soon running an important institution. Fakhr al-Din let it be known that he wanted it to be a college, not a seminary. The parish was formed in 1631 and Father Adrien de la Brosse became its first incumbent.

Christian county, later kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula situated on the high basin of the Northern Meseta with Burgos and Toledo as capital cities. It obtained over the new bloc resulting from the union of Castile and León (1230) then from the conquest of Andalusia (1228-1248) and became known as the “Crown of Castile”.

A council of clerics known as canons leading a collegiate life and responsible for the solemnities performed in a cathedral church. They enjoyed enough authority to handle diocesan business if the need arose.

Officer responsible for the household services.

The king's combined domestic services.

Head of the king's administration responsible for the offices drafting and executing the royal acts.

Honorific body instituted by a monarch or a prince in order to reward personal merit or attract personal loyalties.

cf. Part III chapter 1

Born in Geneva of a father himself a citizen or a burgher, they enjoyed all political rights and could take up any trade.

“The cities and the kingdom” in Latin. This term sometimes take on the meaning of “state” in the 13th century.

The right to grant a church benefice.

A troop of soldiers led by a captain who received from the king money to that end. Those captains belonged for the most part to the aristocracy, up to its highest ranks.

Doctrine that asserts that in the Catholic Church an ecumenical council has an authority superior to that of the pope.

A treaty concluded between a sovereign and the pope. In Bologna in 1516, Leo X granted Francis I such power over the church of his kingdom as no other sovereign had.

Western Christianity (in its Latin tradition) splintered as from the 16th century into several branches known as confessions: Catholicism (attached to Rome), Protestantism (mostly of Lutheran or Zwinglo-Calvinistic inspiration), Anglicanism (England). The second half of the 16th century is marked by the confessionalization of the European territory.

A body made up with “elders” (lay former members of the Little Council) and pastors. Vested with responsibilities for surveillance and disciplinary control, it met on a regular basis and summoned those who had to be exhorted and rebuked on matters of religious practice.

Andalusian city, capital city of the Umayyad Caliphate (929-1031), powerful Muslim political establishment in al-andalus.

“The crown” in Latin. This term begins to be used in the 13th century with the meaning of “State”.

“Representative” assembly of the crown of Castile, comparable to the états (estates) of the kingdom of France or the English Parliament.

No sooner had he accessed power in 911 than Conrad I was the object of the high nobles' hostility as they strove to make him grasp that they would not let him go over their head to govern. In the face of this widespread revolt, Conrad enjoyed the church's unfailing support. A synod, hastily called at Hohenaltheim (Bavaria) threatened the rebels with ecclesiastical sanctions (excommunication) on the grounds that obedience owed to royal authority could be placed on the same plane as submission to divine power.

Including Citizens and Burghers, it met twice a month; it selected the members of the Little Council, handled the business passed on by this instance and passed its legislation.

This term refers to the aggressive component of the effort of Catholic regeneration after the Council of Trent. When speaking of spiritual and institutional renewal, the term of Catholic Reformation is preferred.

The central organ of accounts auditing, as from 1390 concerned only with crown lands revenues.

Literally “whose realm his religion”.

The ten commandments as stated in the Hebrew Bible in Exodus 20 or Deuteronomy 5.

Exceptional contribution towards the Crusade levied by the pope on church revenues (by tything = contribution of a tenth) which was diverted by the kings.

Dhimmi is the name broadly covering the group referred to as “the people of the book” in the Quran – that is essentially, but not exclusively – the Jews and the Christians. Those non-Muslims have a distinct status within societies governed by Muslim rulers the laws of which are partly founded in Islam. The dhimmis are acknowledged as lower status but protected minorities, whose rights and duties are not the same as the Muslims'. They are taxed twice over: per capita (jizya) and on real estate (kharaj).

General assembly, of the Imperial Estates of the Holy Roman Empire, meeting of those “states”' representatives, who were elected according to diverse modalities.

Territorial jurisdiction under the leadership of a bishop.

The right claimed by the sovereign to collect the revenues of an episcopal see when vacant. He could also by droit de dépouille claim worldly goods for the royal estates.

Followers of a Shi'a doctrine derived from Ismailism to which are added specific texts and references; they became organised under the rule of the Fatimid dynasty in the 11th century. The esoteric content of their teaching revolves around Caliph al-Hakim identified as universal intellect or ‘aql. The first figures to preach the new doctrine are Nashtakin ad-Darazi (hence the term “Druze”), a Turk and Hamza ibn Ali, native of Persia. The death of the Caliph in 1021 saw the disappearance of the movement in Egypt and its spreading around Mount Hermon's peasantry. The Druze form a closed community with its own customs. It is divided between the “knowledgeable initiate” and the “ignorant”, the former duty-bound to observe seven commandments. The Druze have upheld some features of the Muslim faith but they attend secret meetings in specific places of worship. They await the return of al-Hakim and Hamza who must restore justice in this world.

The Druze flourished mostly on Mount Lebanon were a few families such as the Buhturs / Tanukhs settled on the heights of Beirut and gained notoriety in the fight against the Franks (Europeans). The Ma'ans established an actual dynasty upon the advent of the Ottomans, they co-opted aristocratic families like the Jumblatts, the Arslans, set up an emirate in Lebanon and some of its neighbouring regions and integrated the Christians in the regime's fabric. Under the Shihabs, aristocratic families exercised power over regions of henceforth mixed populations. The Egypto-Ottoman conflict and the interference of the European powers broke the union between Druze and Maronites and brought about the fall of the emirate in 1840. A part of the community moved to Hauran in Syria in the 19th century and managed to hold their own against the Turks on the eve of the First World War and against the French Mandate between 1925 and 1927. Their name has passed to the region known as Jabal al-Druze and they have continued to play a key role at each turning point of Syria's history. Another community thrived in Palestine and sided with the State of Israel where the Druze are the only Arabs to serve in the IDF. The three communities have their own spiritual hierarchy which gives primacy to the Lebanese branch; they maintain with each other and with the Diaspora an exemplary solidarity.

The royal lineage from which kings were chosen (Chaney, cult of kingship).

Eastern part of the great Frankish kingdom created by Charlemagne consisting of the duchies of Bavaria, Saxony, Swabia and Franconia. It originated with the 843 Treaty of Verdun between Louis the Pious' three heirs: Western Francia went to Charles the Bald, Eastern Francia went to Louis known as the German. The central portion, along with the imperial title went to Lothair.

Financial administrative tier for the purpose of direct taxation.

Prince, title based on the Arabic verb amara to command, to order. In tribal systems, it is worn by the group leader. In a province of the Ottoman Empire, it was the highest function. The emir ensured security for all, personally or otherwise, he ran the administration, managed the finances. A vassal of the Porte, he paid it a yearly tribute accounting for the tax paid by the emirate's people regardless of faith or clan.

In the simplest terms, it means “leader” as chosen by a given group (a tribe, a religious movement). But the title covers a broad range: “Amir al-Mu'minim” means Commander of the Faithfull and refers to the spiritual and political leader of the Muslims, protector of the Muslim faith. (see also “emir” of the Ottoman Empire).

The term refers to the government formula through which the Ma'an (1516-1696) then the Shihab (1697-2842) dynasties ruled. The Prince Emir received his investiture sometimes for life either directly from the Sublime Porte or from the wali of Damascus or of Sidon after 1660. The prince emir ruled in partnership with the chiefs of the aristocratic families and his authority extended to the whole of Mount Lebanon and often to bordering regions. The Ottomans suppressed the emirship in 1842 and, with the European power's approval, replaced it with the Kaimakamate.

In France an assembly in which the three “orders” (clergy, aristocracy and those not belonging to either) gathered at national or provincial level.

Office of the English monarch charged with the collection and management of the royal revenue.

Philip the Fair was the first king to have claimed “ownership” over the Jews in his kingdom, thus getting the better of the great lords and the Inquisition during the first part of his reign. He argued the religious “purification” of his kingdom to justify the 1306 expulsion which concerned thousands of people. Conversion made it possible to escape that fate. This was a way for the king to reinforce his power in the face of the great lords and to restock the treasury since expulsion entailed the full confiscation of a person's possessions.

For Luther, faith is a gift from God to the believer, thanks to which the latter may believe in Him and thus be in a relationship with Him. This is referred to as “salvation by faith” or “justification by faith” as against the idea according to which humans could through their own merit obtain anything from God.

Jurist.

A Shiia dynasty drawn from its Ismailian branch. It drew its prestige and its authority from descending from Fatima (cf. references). Between 909 and 1171, their authority intermittently spread out from regions in current Algeria to northern Lebanon via Egypt and a part of the Arabian Peninsula.

Juristic ruling.

Assembly of Cantons representatives (one or two per Canton). The Federal Diet did not rely on vassalage but on a system of alliances freely sworn between communes. Membership of the diet imposed obligations of assistance and arbitration as did alliances.

Institutions and customs that fixed the reciprocal obligations between a lord and his vassal to whom a fiefdom would be entrusted.

Originating from the Tafilalt in the South-East of Morocco.

Fiscal funds proceeding from taxes raised by the king beyond the crown lands throughout his realm.

Ordinary (domanial) funds raised from the royal desmain (the lands, fiefs and rights directly possessed by the kings of France).

Imperial edict issued by the Sublime Porte.

The county of Flanders was a fief in the French kingdom but its wealth relied on trade with England. As a result, the Earl breached his fealty to the king of France in 1297 to ally himself with England. Philip militarily occupied the county in order to assert his authority but he was confronted to the revolt of the burghers in the 1302 Bruges Matins. That same year, the royal army was humiliated at Kortrijk. The king's victory in 1304 did not resolve the Flanders question which plagued Philip's reign to the end.

The franchises granted the city amounted to rights that curbed the sovereign authority.

Law compilation imposed on many towns from 1255 by Alfonso X as the new law code. Bringing about many changes, the Fuero Real was not well accepted in the north of the kingdom.

(Branches of jurisprudence) It sets forth the practical rules which govern ritual and social activities.

Doctrine favouring a Church of France independent from the Papacy.

It was made up with male citizens and burghers aged over 25. Members of the General Council had the vote and were eligible. The General Council elected the syndics and the lieutenant of justice, the auditors and the attorney general.

Peripatetic clerk responsible for the oversight of the levying of taxes. In 1443 the élections were merged into four then five généralités.

Major project launched by Alfonso X between 1272 and 1275, which remained unfinished at his death in 1284. This universal history, from the creation of the world to the then-present times was meant, via a reinterpretation of all known historical sources (notably the Bible and classical historians) to justify Alfonso's Castilian hegemonic pretentions.

Individuals living in the city without the status of either citizen or burgher. They enjoyed no political rights. Starting in the 16th century, habitant status became a political category in its own right. Foreigners would be admitted as habitants a few weeks after their arrival. As stipulated in the heading of the “letter of habitation” they were granted, they thereby committed to live according to the “Holy Reformation”.

Pilgrimage to Mecca, one of the “five pillars” that is the most important duties in the Muslim faith.

The emir's agents collecting taxes for the Porte.

Act by which a vassal acknowledged his bond to his lord.

The lower chamber of the English parliament where the representatives of the shires and towns convene.

Accusation the Protestants taxed the Catholics with, mainly because of the role of craven images in Roman practice.

 A territory corresponding to current Tripolitania, Tunisia and Constantine.

Meaning "he who stands in front/ who leads prayer" in the Muslim tradition. He is also the “jurist” or the “preacher” and further in a politico-religious sense, the “leader” or “guide” of the Umma. Finally, in the Shia doctrine, the imam alone may infallibly interpret the Quran.

This modus operandi has indeed been described as Reichskirchensystem, which suggests an institutionalisation of what nevertheless amounted only to a set of practices sufficiently well established to prove stable and effective, including at times of dynastic crisis viz in 983, Otto II's untimely death. His son, 3 years old Otto III, violently challenged by the nobles, enjoyed the Church's steadfast support.

Refers to a recompense system whereby the sovereign granted land to the realm's overlords against services essentially of a military nature. An arrangement already practised during the Later Roman Empire, this practice was adopted by the Arabs in varied forms. The Ottomans suited it to their governmental needs and deployed concessions in a broad range of domains. The privilege gradually became hereditary but its holder had to acquit the taxes attached to it as well as make a military contribution. In Mount Lebanon the iqta describes a complex system with political, administrative, fiscal, judicial and agrarian implications. Here the iqta was not in the hands of the Sultan since the land belonged to the aristocratic families, among which the emir's. Each family owned one or more districts, administered them, providing work for the farmers, dispensing justice, raising taxes and paying their due to the emir. The lord in charge of a district was known as a muquata'ji and the territory as muqataat. The eldest son took on the charge of Muqata'ji which was primogenitarily passed on. In Mount Lebanon, the emirship rested on these bases.

(In this context) armed struggle to defend “God's word” in other words, a “holy war” against “God's enemies”.

Title given to central power representatives in the countryside they were responsible for law and order; a lasting figure in Moroccan society.

Regime dividing the Mountain into two districts or territories: one Christian, the other Muslim. Each kaimakamate involved a mixed council made up with representatives of the diverse religious faiths on a proportional basis.

In North-African countries a Kasbah or Qassabah is a citadel or chieftain's palace, for instance the Kasbah of the Udayas in Rabat (Morocco). By extension the word also refers to the heart of North-African cities, whether fortified or otherwise. In this second sense, the word is almost synonymous with medina.

“Those who got out” of the alliance with Ali, blaming him for failing to secure the means to defeat his adversary Muawiyah, the governor of Damascus who disputed his legitimacy.

Public preaching in the Islamic tradition. Such sermons occur regularly, e.g. at the dhuhr (noon) congregation prayer on Friday.

Knights of a military order founded in 1129 with a view to protect the pilgrims in the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, later, by extension to ensure the defence of the territory. The land gifted to them in the West enabled them to fund their mission then to become a major economic actor, notably in the kingdom of France where they had their seat. With the fall of Acre/Akko, the last Latin bastion in the East, they had lost their raison d'être. Rumours about loose conduct within the order were seized upon by Philip to organise their demise in the framework of a church trial which would lead many knights, including the Grand Master of the order, Jacques de Molay, to the stake (1307-1311).

Contrary to a broadly held view, the material advantages to the royal power remained modest since the order of the Temple's property was wholly handed over to another military order: the Knights Hospitaller.

Christian Kingdom in the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula. It followed on from  the Asturian kingdom of Oviedo (8th century) the capital of which moved south to the city of León at the beginning of the 10th century.

He was selected from among former syndics and elected for a year by the General Council. He presided over the lieutenant's court, that is the civil court and investigated criminal cases. He was assisted by four (then six from 1568) auditors elected on a three-yearly basis.

The feudal system allowed a man to be a vassal to several lords in order to improve his social status but this situation caused conflicts. To put paid to this, it had become the rule in some places, as from the 11th century to designate the lord who had prior claims on a vassal who had several. Kings in the Latin West made good use of this arrangement to reinforce their power, not least Philip Augustus (1180-1223) in France.

Geneva's governing body; although an imperial city, Geneva enjoyed total political autonomy. The council was made up with 25 members and two secretaries of state, all citizens. The Little Council drafted the laws, acted as penal court and court of appeal in civil cases. It selected the members of the Council of Two Hundred.

Government of Geneva, which, theoretically an imperial city, still enjoyed total political autonomy. It counted 25 members and two secretaries of state, all citizens. The Little council drafted laws, heard appeals from the civil courts and acted as criminal court. It chose the members of the Council of the Two Hundred.

Chief commander of the king's army in his absence.

A member of the Little Council, the ruling body of the de Genevan Republic, with essentially executive functions.

The awaited “divinely guided one”. In the Muslim tradition, he is the person who must appear at “the end of times” to bring justice and to reform what has corrupted the human condition. A number of people have claimed the title in the course of Islam's history; mostly they are considered “usurpers”.

Mahdism is a doctrine drawn from traditional Shia belief. The Mahdi is awaited as a “liberator”, the man who at the end of ages will come and establish justice on earth.

“Magazine” in the sense of warehouse. It was the place where money and precious goods were stored whence it assumed the meaning of “treasury”, ending up referring in the 16th century to the entire central government apparatus.

Movement built around the spiritual following of a holy, pious and revered man. But the evolution undergone by Morocco since the middle of the 15th century led the movement to go beyond the personal status of such a founding figure and to become a critical social force party to all the changes experienced by Morocco since the 16th century.

The marabouts formed in Morocco a caste akin to that of other shorfa in the descent of Muhamad : they enjoyed the same religious prestige and exercised like them a spiritual influence on the rest of the population. The Marabout is a holy man who has dedicated his life to his faith. But, as often happens, the word changed meaning, referring to the historical evolution of the marabouts' role from the 12th century in the evolving proto-state constructions of what would become Morocco.

Eastern Christians attached to the tradition of Maron (4th/5th century) considered as the founding saint and leader of an acetic community settled around Apamea in the Orontes valley (in current-day Syria). After his death (c. 410), followers lived around a monastery where they kept up his teaching and memory. Between 702 and 742, the Maronites took the initiative of electing as their own patriarch to the see of Antioch, the monk John Marun, considered the actual founder of the Maronite church. Condemned by Byzantine Christians (Chalcedonians) and Syriac Christians (Monophysites), the Maronites lost Byzantium's protection and its army, according to Maronite tradition massacred hundreds of monks. To escape persecutions, Patriarch John Maron decided to take refuge on Mount Lebanon. In the 11th century a majority of Maronites had settled in the mountain valleys of Northern Lebanon. From the 12th century, the Maronite church stated its communion with the Roman Catholic church and its Patriarch took part in the Lateran Council of 1215.This connection was reinforced by the creation in the 16th century of the Maronite College in Rome. In the modern era, the Maronite community worked towards the creation of the Lebanese State and played a major part – albeit diluted since 1989 – in ruling it. It enjoys the support of a strong Diaspora.

Eastern Orthodox Christians who, in 1724, had broken rank with the Orhtodox church and, in the wake of a “unitarist” movement encouraged by Catholic missionaries at the beginning of the 17th century, joined the Roman Catholic Church under Patriarch Cyril VI and was granted the pallum, sign of communion with the Catholic Church in 1744. Early adherents belonged to wealthy and educated families that settled in Mount Lebanon to escape the persecutions declared by the Orthodox hierarchy. The Shihab emirs eased their move and the Ottoman authority's recognition of their status in the region resulted in their strong presence there to this day.

Annual tribute paid by wilayet governors to the central treasury of the Ottoman Empire. It could be paid in several instalments according to a customary tax collection schedule. Mount Lebanon's miri amounted to 3500 purses but this sum was exorbitantly increased between 1730 and 1860, reflecting the Ottoman Empire's difficult economic situation as the industrial revolution caught on.

From the Spanish word for a small moor : Muslims who converted to Catholicism nolens volens after the Catholic Monarchs (Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile) abrogated the agreements that allowed them to uphold their faith and customs on Spanish soil. This notwithstanding, they were forced out of Spain in waves throughout the 16th century when many settled in Morocco.

Also known as the Mountain, refers to the range of mountains stretching from the heights of Tripoli in the north to ancient Galilee in the south. Under Ottoman domination and before the creation of the wilayet of Sidon in 1660, it was divided into two distinct entities separated by the river Maameltein. The northern part came under the wilayet of Tripoli and the southern one under that of Damascus. After 1660, Mount Lebanon came under the wilayet of Sidon. Emir Yusuf Shihab reunited the two parts. Under the Ottomans, Mount Lebanon experienced three regimes: the emirship, the Kaymakamate and the Mutasarrifiyya.

Pledger, the “guide of the believers” according to the bay'ah, that is in allegiance to the ruler.

Literally the person “placed at the front”. The word applies to a chief, for instance of a troop or a ship. At the time of the emirate (1516-1540), the muqaddam was nominated by the emir and placed in charge of a given territory for which he collected taxes.

Lord in charge of a district. He collected taxes, dispensed justice in first instance and raised armies at the request of the emir (see chap. II part C).

“Governorship”. The 1860 massacres drove the Powers (France Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, Prussia, Russia) and the Ottoman Empire to devise a special administrative regulation establishing the autonomy of Mount Lebanon. This organic statute (al-nizam al-assassi) comprised of 17 articles was signed on 9 June 1861. Ruling over what had been the two kaimakamates, the governor (Mutasarrif), an Ottoman Christian but not a Lebanese, was to be supported by a central administrative council (majlis idari) made up with 12 members representing the populations and allowing for the representation of the six main communities: Maronite, Druze, Greek-Catholic, Greek-Orthodox, Sunni and Shia. Represented proportionally in this pluri-confessional organ they came to 7 Christians and 5 Muslims (4 Maronites, 3 Druze, 2 Greek Orthodox, 1 Greek Catholic, 1 Uniate, 1 Shia).

Official who managed a small town in the name of the Wali.

A school of thought pertaining to the Sunni tradition. It emerged during the first half of the 8th century in the region of Basra and thrived under the early Abassid caliphs. Its exponents resort to reason to dispute certain ahadith (deeds and sayings ascribed to Muhammad) and interrogate their coreligionists on fundamental questions relating to the dogma of “God's unicity”: the nature of divine attributes, the place of free will, the created nature of the Qu'ran, the status of the Muslim who has sinned... In erudite circles their stance was received with interest or reprobation; then it was forcibly imposed before being in turn forcibly rejected.

This term covers the leading members of the highest ruling aristocracy of the kingdom, referred to in Latin by the terms potentes (the mighty), procures (greats, nobles, ruling aristocracy) or principes (princes, first). To some ten aristocratic families ruling the duchies that made up the kingdom, were soon added some thirty prelates making up the kingdom's body of bishops and archbishops.

An ecclesiastical court that appeared in the 13th century at the time of the introduction north of the Alps of Roman-Canon Law. The competences of its officer addressed church or spiritual matters but were later extended to purely lay civil cases to the point when they could clash with the vidame's purview.

In the Middle Ages, king David constituted the Biblical model for the  “Priest-King” as frequently called upon in France. In Castile it is his son Solomon who served as the main reference. Known as “the Wise” in the Bible, which nevertheless records his descent into immorality at the end of his life, he is remembered as a sound administrator, builder and dispenser of justice

“The Christian world”, Latin formula frequently used at the time to refer to Christendom as a whole.

The name given to the feudal army such as it existed in the Middle-Ages.

Bottom tier of the church administration under the leadership of a vicar, subdivision of a diocese.

In England a body controlling the monarch, voting extraordinary taxation since the 13th century.

In France, supreme sovereign court of justice.

Governor high ranking military or city official. In the Mashreq often honorary title added after the name of those high ranking Ottoman dignitaries to whom it was granted. This title was not hereditary and became the appanage of provincial governors and central government's viziers.

Patriarch is a title used in a number of Christian churches, including the Roman Catholic Church, Orthodox churches and Eastern churches. Some Eastern churches use the term Catholicos.

The word has its root in classical Greek πατριάρχης (patriarkhēs), "father" or "chief of a race. In the Roman Catholic Church, patriarchs operated within the Roman Empire whereas the catholicos had charge of a see outside the Empire (notably in Armenia and Mesopotamia). By analogy with the Old Testament, the title was used up to the 5th century as synonymous with “bishop”. However it already applied more narrowly to the bearers of a more significant authority. The three first Patriarchates are those of Rome, Antioch and Alexandria. At the Council of Chalcedon (451), the patriarchates of Jerusalem and Constantinople were created, the latter being recognised by the pope only in 12 15. It remains that, starting from this council, we may officially speak of the patriarchate and even of Pentarchy: the five patriarchal churches of the Christian Church during the first millennium of its history

Originally an unfolded document, it became a sheet of paper or cardboard with a written announcement for display in a public place, a public notice. Could also be defamatory or seditious.

The Holy Roman Empire claimed to be heir to the Roman Empire. At its head was an elected emperor who could not take decisions without the assent of the Diet, that is the gathering of representatives from the diverse states. There was also an Imperial Tribunal ruling on internal conflicts and some appeals. For the rest the states in the Empire enjoyed extensive autonomy.

“The people” in Latin. This term sometimes takes on the meaning of “State” in the 13th century.

By translating the neutral term beneficium (benefit) used by the papal legate Roland Bandinelli by the word Lehen (fief), the imperial chancellor Rainald of Dassel reignited the struggle between the empire and the papacy. Thus translated the papal envoys' statement likened the empire to a fief in the gift of the pope, a position wholly unacceptable to the emperor. In spite of later clarifications, this incident kicked off what has been called the struggles of the Empire and the papacy and is nothing but the continuation of the earlier Controversy of Investitures.

The political or secular or civil power may, according to the lexicon of early Reformation be referred to by the word “prince” (to be understood in the broadest sense of monarch) or “magistrate”.

For the establishment of Prince Bishops in the Holy Roman Empire.

See Part III – chapter I

The presence of Protestants in the Near-East goes back to the first third of the 19th century. Confronted to sciences' advances, academics, mostly of the Protestant faith found themselves compelled to study the Bible within its original context and thus discovered the traditions of ancient Eastern communities. At the same time, their faith directed them to spread the “Good News”. Lebanon's singular political situation lead to the installation of early protestant missionaries in Beirut and in Mount Lebanon. The American Board's Congretionalists arrived first and were almost alone operating in the region until the 1870s followed by protestant Armenians in 1846. Congregationalist action would among other things yield the first translations of the Bible in local languages. The publishing of the first full translation of the Bible in Arabic came out in Beirut in 1867, 10 years before the Jesuits'. The method used whereby readers were consulted on the text's legibility before finalising the translation contributed to the renewal of Arabic and to the modernisation of typographic and printing techniques. The educational drive would achieve higher education status with the Syrian Protestant College, later known as the American University of Beirut. The Protestants became recognised by the Sublime Porte with a Millet status in 1850. The Lebanese constitution included the Protestants in the 15 communities in which the Lebanese people is founded.

Judge or magistrate ruling in accordance with Islamic religious law (sharia) who has jurisdiction over all legal matters involving Muslims.

Radical Reformation is the name given to the groupings which, following the Reformation rejected all compromise with the world, and more specifically with political power. These groups often harboured millennialist beliefs in the approach of the end of times (viz. Thomas Müntzer, the Anabaptists etc).

The Spanish word referring to all the wars conducted by Christian monarchs to recover Andalusia, that is the part of the Iberian Peninsula under Muslim rule.

A religious movement aimed at re-establishing Christian religious practice along the Early Church's principles as stated in the Gospels. On the basis of Marin Luther's critical analyses, driven by men like Huldrych Zwingli, Heinrich Bullinger (1504-1575, reformer who succeeded Zwingli in Zurich) or Jean Calvin, movements of church reformation grew during the first half of the 16th century, leading to numerous religious conflicts in Europe.

Set of insignia symbolising royal power. Thus, in the course of his coronation, the king of France used the Crown, the ring, the sword, the soq, a liturgical mantle that marked him as a priest-king. Representations of Philip the Fair made when he was alive or after his death also show him carrying the sceptre, symbol of his authority, and a rod (or second sceptre) tipped with a hand representing his monopoly on justice, or with the fleur de lys, the mark of the French monarchy's dynastic and territorial continuity

“The kingdom” in Latin. A frequently used term sometimes with the meaning of “State” in the 13th century.

“The public thing” in Latin. A term from the Roman era that makes a discrete comeback with the meaning of “State” in the 13th century.

"Râbita" may refer to the resident army in the ribat usually understood as a fortress, a defensive position hence the term murabitun. At the root of the word is the notion of standing firm and the noun is thus associated to a place where one faces the “enemy”. It is also a place of education and scientific training.

A royal agent who had a stewardship role at local level.

Royal officers with territorial Judicial, financial and military functions.

Adminstrative subdivision of an Ottoman Vilayet, under the control of a sanjakbey who took military and civilian commands.

The Old and the New Testament, the Bible.

Besides the king's private estates, royal income proceeded from the servicium regis or service of the king which formed not just the economic basis of the aulic (pertaining to a royal court) system but also of the royal operation itself ensuring its economical survival and enacting the diverse parties' obligations towards the king. Whilst they had soon vanished in the kingdoms of Latin Christendom (as early as the end of the 9th century) the obligations owed the crown by the nobles in the Germanic realm remained fully operative. The term encompasses all the obligations the realm's nobles (princes, vassals, bishops) owed the king : fodrum (right of fodder), gistum (shelter), servitia (diverse services, notably military). The role of shelter (gistum cum fodrum) remained fundamental: feeding and maintaining the troops, armed service and court service went on being performed as of old: this archaism kept the royal power structure going. Otton I turned service into a government model, thoroughly codified and organised. Royal domains, monasteries, cities, princes all contributed by way of annual giving (dona annualia).

Sharifism formed on the word Sharif (plural shorfa), the term refers to the descent of the Prophet Muhammad in the Muslim tradition. But sharifism, as a movement is linked to the politics of Marinid monarchs who used it as a political trump. Sharifism thus took on a mainly ideological hue.

“The leader among the young”. In our context the phrase refers to the leader of a village youths or a powerful young man”.

They were tribal leaders. Etymologically the term means “elder“, who has acquired experience and knowledge, particularly valued in social groups where oral tradition held sway.

In England, the king's representative in the shire.

In England subdivision of the realm, a county.

One of the fundamental principles of legitimation in the Muslim tradition. It addresses all aspects of public life, starting with politics. In this framework the advice of those concerned is requested and the whole Umma – meaning the “Muslim community” – is consulted, directly or via its representatives in some capacity or other.

Overall codification of all existing law (Roman, ecclesiastical  and Feudal) set forth between 1256 (date of Alfonso's imperial bid) and 1265. The king is thought to have taken part in its devising. This code was not brought into force until 1348.

Title drawn from a word meaning strength and justice, it is given to the political authority in many Muslim states. It means the head of state and is a template of Eastern governance.

Switzerland is a federal republic the component states of which are called “Cantons”.

Craftsmen would form a sworn association with others with the same skills with a view to defend their common interests. Members were bound by an oath of allegiance to the group.

In a free imperial city, the syndics were the populations' representative to the sovereign. In Geneva, there were four syndics; they presided over the Little Council. Their presence can be traced back to the 13th century.

From an Arabic word meaning “reform/ refounding/ reorganisation”. In Ottoman history, it refers to the Westernisation period which, between 1839 and 1876 brought in reforms considered revolutionary. They reached nearly every sector: politics, law, administration, the army, finance, trade, transport. The first phase opened on Sultan Abdul Hamid's firman in November 1839 known as the Hatti-i sherif of the Gul-Khane or Rescript of the Rose Chamber (see window Hatt-ı Hümayun of Sultan Abdülmecid I in II C 3) then the Hatti Humayun (imperial rescript) at the end of Crimean War: equality between all the Sultan's subjects, be they Muslim or Christian or any other faith was proclaimed. The second phase concerns the proclamation of the constitution in 1876 which limits the powers of the sultan. However this “fundamental law” was suspended a few months later.

Caution, wariness, form of secrecy or concealment (kitman) whereby a Muslim may refrain from stating his belief when exposed to danger. For Muslim jurists, taqiyya can find its justification in the Quran (e.g. XVI, 106) and in the Hadith; for other jurists it is inacceptable if the purpose is to mislead other Muslims. This practice is historically significant among Shia and Kharijite Muslims, justified by the purpose of avoiding a martyrdom deemed unnecessary, be it meted out by a Muslim (usually Sunni) power or a non-Muslim (usually Christian) one. Under its most widespread guise, taqiyya is a practice that consists in dissimulating one's obedience to a faith group and to worship in secret with a view to escape persecution. Dissimulation can be passive (hiding) or active (including outward adoption of the religious practice and customs of an enemy). In the case of Emir Fakhr al-Din, a “political” taqiyya has been mooted in so far as he is thought to be a Druze by many whilst behaving like a Sunni Muslim, particularly before the Ottomans.

It has proved difficult to evaluate the population of Geneva in the 16th century given the paucity of the data. A few population counts were carried out at times of food shortages in order to weigh up the supplies needed for the population. According to Alfred Perrenoud, the number of inhabitants ran to 13100 in 1550, rising to 21400 in 1560 as a result of an influx of French refugees on religious grounds. This rise was temporary, many refugees returned to France or left for other destinations in the decade 1550-1560. The figures fell back to around 15000 and stayed there until the beginning of the 18th century.

In the event the Protestants.

One of the two sacraments recognised by the Protestant churches (with baptism). During the Lord's Supper, in commemoration of Christ's last supper with his apostles, participants share the bread and wine that represent the body and Blood of Christ.

The Moroccans had already in those days a clear conscience of their existence as a specific social and geographic entity within the Umma. In sources in Arabic, the territory is given the name of Al-Maghreb Al-Aqsa (the land farthest to the West). This awareness and feeling were illustrated in the Battle of Oued El Makhazeen/Kzar El Kebir when they stood united to defend their land. Resistance to the Ottoman conquest is a matter of pride in Moroccan awareness and is dated back to the 8th century and the foundation of an Idrisid kingdom independent from the Abbasid caliphate. This distinction was acknowledged abroad: in 1443, the agreement concluded between Portugal and Castile at Tordesillas, mentions Morocco as an independent territory in northern Africa.

Institution set up by Pope Innocent III in the 13th century in order to fight “heresy”, the instrument later developed in Spain (1479)came under the control of the state, not the Church. Its judges were appointed by the king of Spain.

See Module 1 Religious Migrations Chap II.

The war started in Bohemia where it opposed at first the Protestant princes of the Empire to its Catholic Emperor from the House of Habsburg before becoming an international conflict when the Swedish and French kings joined in the fray. Concluded with the Treaties of Westphalia in 1648 it cost certain regions of the Empire up to half of its population.

Scholars specialised in Islamic religious sciences. They may be referred to as “Doctors of Islamic law”

Federal state comprised of several provinces of the present Low Countries (Holland, Zealand, Utrecht etc.) which broke free from the king of Spain, Philip II's domination in 1579-1581. The United Provinces were Protestant in their majority. The Declaration of independence can be found @ http://www.let.rug.nl/~usa/D/1501-1600/plakkaat/plakkaaten.htm and a Dutch-English comparative text @ http://www.h4.dion.ne.jp/~room4me/docs/abj_dut.htm

A community of teachers and students. In Latinate Europe, the universities were born of the regrouping of a city's Episcopal schools. The first appeared at the turn of the 12th and 13th century on the initiative of the monarchs, for instance in Bologna in 1158, Palencia in Castile in 1208, in Salamanca in Leon in 1218. Paris, Oxford and Toulouse obtained papal statutes respectively in 1215, 1231 and 1233-45.

Within the Druze community they are “savants” or “knowledgeable initiate” as opposed to the Juhhal, the “ignorant”. The Uqqal are duty bound to observe the seven Druze commandments distinct from the five “pillars” observed by Sunni and Shi'-a Muslims.

Science of the “foundation of the faith” which defines “the law” in relation to doctrinal questions: belief in “God”, in the “Day of judgment” etc.

The governor of the largest administrative subdivision of the Ottoman Empire, the v/wilayet. Originally allocated for one year, the charge became permanent, saleable and even sometime hereditary. Walis had the use of the honorific title of Pasha, traditionally granted to viziers and high-ranking civil servants. The wali had his residence in the main city in the wilayet, he was essentially responsible for law and order. His council included a cadi and an inspector of finances called a defterdar.

Mount Lebanon traditionally fell into two wilayets: Tripoli and Damascus.

Lay lord subordinated to the bishop, official charged with dispensing justice on behalf of the bishop. He judged civil cases and investigated criminal cases for which judgement was pronounced by the syndics. The procedure was accusatorial, that is spoken simply in the vernacular. The execution of sentences of capital punishment or of mutilation fell to one of the bishop's vassals granted the charge of advocate of the bishop. Until the beginning of the 15th century this charge fell to the counts of Geneva.

Ottoman province ruled by a governor (wali) appointed by the sultan

First advisor of the Sultan in his political capacity, corresponding to a secretary of state or cabinet in the Anglo-Saxon tradition.

Spokesperson for an authority or an assembly.

In England a royal service whose role is essentially domestic whereas the Chamber has the charge of the Royal Treasure.

Papal crisis lasting from 1378 to 1417, dividing Western Christendom between the followers of two different popes, one in Rome and the other in Avignon.

Saxony, today in North-Eastern Germany.

A Zawiya (originally corner) was a prayer space. The word acquired a broader meaning that reflected its religious, educational and political roles. As a result of its implication in social change from the beginning of the 16th century, the Zawiya became a multi-purpose entity.

A Shia branch of Islam whose adherents acknowledge the exclusive legitimacy of five “Imams”, the fifth of whom is Zayd Ibn Ali (698-740). Their jurisprudence is close to that of the Sunni schools.