Women becoming religious actors
In spite of some early stated longings, Jewish women did not succeed in overcoming the obstacles placed by tradition between them and Jewish religious practice even after they were declared its nominal custodians. The 1880-1914 crisis did however result in the improvement of religious education for women and girls in order to combat assimilation. Girls' cheders[1] opened all over the place and even though their teaching was less advanced than for boys, it still was progress. After the war, the demands, often carried by (originally broadly philanthropic) Jewish women's organisations, would become more pressing. In 1920, the West London Synagogue allowed women to conduct services.
Hailing from the United States the National Federation of Temple Sisterhoods inspired European followers. After fighting for a better education for women, their members would, in the inter-war period, advocate female representation within the diverse communal instances. In the United Sates and in Germany, for the first time, seminaries or rabbinic colleges admitted women who began to appeal for their ordination whilst the authorities dragged their feet. Their chief argument was that the majority of reformed synagogues attendees were now women. In 1928, Lily Montagu[2] , who, over a quarter of a century, had tirelessly worked for women's advancement within British Reformed Judaism famously declared, in her speech to the conference of the World Union for Progressive Judaism that “the women must come down from the gallery”.
In 1935 her efforts seemed to bear fruit: a woman was ordained as a rabbi in Germany. Born at the beginning of the century, Regina Jonas had lost her father in early childhood. In 1924, she matriculated at the Hochschule fuer die Wissenschaft des Judentums, (Higher Institute for Jewish Studies or Academy for the Science of Judaism) where she followed the course preparing for rabbihood and teaching. She graduated as an “Academic Teacher of Religion”. She enrolled as a post-graduate student and presented a thesis titled “Can a Woman Be a Rabbi according to Halachic Sources?” Though praising it, the academic consensus was to deny her ordination. Appealing to Leo Baeck[3] in 1933, Regina Jonas was rebuffed for a second time; a leading figure of German Judaism, he was supportive but refused to ordain her in order to hold back the tensions between Orthodox and Liberal Jews in his country. She would finally be ordained in 1935 in Offenbach by liberal Rabbi Max Dienemann[4]. And yet, though being ordained and enjoying much support, Regina would never have her own flock. She died in Auschwitz in 1944. Two decades later in the United States the reverse would apply: Between 1950 and 53, Paula Ackerman[5] took charge of a community while not having received a semikah[6] . Not before 1972 had the matter run its course with the ordination of Sally Priesand[7] . Beyond the UK (ordaining Jackie Tabick in1975), Europe lagged behind. In France Pauline Bebe[8] was ordained in 1990.
As we draw to a close, let us revisit the morning prayer. What has become of it in the 21st century? In Orthodox Judaism it remains unchanged. Its apologists insist on two points: the different nature of both sexes and the misfortune of not having to observe all the divine commandments. The Massorti movement, largely open to women, still opposes doing away with the three negative blessings while looking to a shift in their formulation the better to express what they conceive to be their original meaning. The Massorti prayer book thus sets forth the blessing as follows: “... Who made me after your image”. As for the Liberals, they have, to all intents and purposes, banished the negative blessings.
