WOMEN AND RELIGIONS: PORTRAITS, ORGANISATIONS, DEBATES

born in Frankfurt and drawn to academia, he could not, however, achieve a position there because of being a Jew, so he turned to the rabbinate. He is the leading mover towards the reform of Judaism in German-speaking states.

Muhammad's third wife according to Sunni tradition and an early convert to Islam; she has been called the Mother of the Believers (umm al-mu'minīn). The hadiths attributed to her have essentially been recorded by al-Bukhârî (810-870).

Details of her life have reached us through accounts set in writing in the 9th and 10th centuries. She is known for her poetic works, notably the elegies to her brothers, dead fighting in pre-Islamic times. She converted to Islam. It is significant that, in those days, the existence of a poetess was in no way extraordinary for Abbasid Muslim elites.

Jewish writer best known for his play The Dybbuk. Between 1911 and 1914, he conducted a significant demographic survey of Russian traditional Jewish communities with a view to compile their oral traditions in particular. He also collected numerous items and produced a rich photographic record.

character in Greek mythology. She set out to contravene Creon's orders by conducting funeral rites over her brother Polinyces who died in his attempt to re-conquer Thebe's throne. Sentenced for her defiance to being buried alive, she hung herself in the grave.

Greek philosopher who addressed and structured within his philosophical framework all the fields of knowledge of his time. Long forgotten in the West he was rediscovered in the 12th century via Arab thinkers. He has ever since been a considerable influence on Christian theology and philosophy.

Joseph Alois Ratzinger (1927 - ): German theologian and Archbishop of Munich and Freising , made a cardinal by Pope Paul VI in 1977, and elected pope (2005-2013) under the name of Benedict XVI. From 1981 to 2005 he was Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith whose job it is to consult bishops and experts and to publish statements on doctrinal questions as they arise in the Church. Joseph Ratzinger authored statements that invited controversy on the grounds of their conservatism, notably regarding Liberation Theology (which involves relations between Catholicism and Marxism) and homosexuality.

theologian who taught at Harvard Divinity School inter alia. In Laughter to Aphrodite : Reflexion on a Journey to the Goddess (1987), she develops a spirituality based on a female divinity, a cult of the goddess.

Italian born French writer, woman of letters, author of numerous books of moral, poetic or historical content, notably The City of Ladies, in which she champions women.

the residence, or former residence, of the parish priests and his household

Theologian and professor of history of Christian doctrines and institutions at the University of Ottawa where she has founded the Canadian Centre for Research on Women and Religion. Her research focuses on ecclesiology, ecumenism, women in the Christian tradition. Elisabeth Lacelle was a consultant to the conference of Canadian Catholic bishops between 1971 and 1984. She is also one of the founders of the network “Women and Ministry” which works towards the acknowledgment of women's ministry.

Romanian born, German educated Catholic theologian. Krister Stendahl professor of divinity at Harvard Divinity School, her book In Memory of Her : A Feminist Theological Reconstruction of Christian Origins(1983) is a turning point in feminist theology. According to her, women can rely on Jesus and early church praxis to think their own history in its current opening to feminist transformation. Her works carry the hope that one day the authority will no longer by restricted to men in the church.

American feminist militant, very active during the second half of the 19th century. In 1895 and 1898, she directed the publication of the two volumes of the Woman's Bible in which misogynist passages are analysed from a historical angle, thus disputing any argument drawn from these passages to justify woman's submission to man.

Maronite bishop whose education first took him to the college of St. John Maroun in kfarhay, the patriarchal see, which taught both lay and seminarist students, then to Ghazir in 1859 to the Jesuit seminary which was to move to Beirut in 1875 and finally to Rome where he graduated from the Urbaniana.

Born in Moravia to a rabbinic family, she also married a rabbi and became his widow in 1854. Little is known of her life besides her famous Stunden der Andacht and a couple of books of stories about Jewish life..

French philosopher and writer he cautiously defended the concept of equality between men and women, notably in De l'égalité des deux sexes. Discours physique et moral où l'on voit l'importance de se défaire des préjugés [A Physical and Moral Discourse on the Equality of both Sexes, which shows that it is important to rid oneself of Prejudices] (1673).

Egyptian officer. After the 1948-49 War, he refused Egypt's defeat by Israel. He took part in the 1952 coup, then in the abolition of the monarchy. His diplomatic victory over France and Great Britain in the Suez crisis granted him a huge prestige, which enabled him to repress opposition movements within his country. The 1987 defeat at the hand of Israel destroyed the momentum he had built towards a unification of the Arab world under his leadership.

Born in Alepo he studied in the city's Maronite school, completing his education under foremost Muslim linguists. He was one of the four founding fathers of the Lebanese Maronite Order (OLM) in Mount Lebanon in 1695. He travelled to Rome to support young members of his order at its seminary and toured Europe. He became the bishop of his native town in 1725 and contributed to its cultural development. He is considered a major forerunner to the Nahda for reviving Arabic through his publications. He enhanced it with a grammar, a lexicon and a poetry collection still considered a reference in the 21st century.

German Physiscian, alchemist and philosopher. Author of De nobilitate et præcellentia foeminei sexus (On the Nobility and Superiority of the Female Sex) written in 1509 and published in 1529.

Jewish historian born in the Grand-Duchy of Posen in Prussian Poland. His History of the Jews in 11 volumes wielded considerable influence throughout Europe. Unlike Markus Jost, Graetz had the history of the Jews begin with Genesis.

Well-born young woman, she dedicated herself to studying and became Abelard's student then his mistress between 1113 and 1117 before their secret marriage. But her family took revenge on Abelard and had him castrated and she became a nun first in Argenteuil then in her own foundation of the Paraclete of which she was the abbess as from 1135. She remained in epistolary contact with Abelard and drew from his teaching whilst he supported her in her projects.

Abbess of the abbey of Rupertsberg (Germany) and major figure whose intellectual contributions show her as a composer, woman of letters, theologian, mystic, physician, botanist etc...

Guiding light of the women's liberation movement in Egypt. Daughter of Muhammad Sultan, the first president of the Egyptian Representative Council and of a Circassian slave, she was the founder and the first president of the Egyptian Feminist Union. She was party to women's mobilisation during the 1919 Revolution. In 1923, returning from an international feminist gathering held in Rome, she unveiled publicly in Cairo station for the first time. A follower of Qasim Amin (the “first feminist of the Arab world”) she fought all her life against women's confinement and for their education as well as for equality between the sexes. A member of the Arab Feminist Union, she was appointed vice-president of the International Feminist Union. Her collected writings have been compiled in one book : Harem Years : The Memoirs of an Egyptian Feminist.

practicing Muslim who leads public prayer. He is expected to be well versed in the Sunnah with a profound knowledge of the Quran and Islamic tradition.

Born in Saxony, he is notably the author of a Geschichte der Israeliten seit den Zeit der Maccabaer, in 9 volumes (1820–1829), which earns him the distinction of being the first modern Jewish historian.

John Paul II (1920-2005): Karol Józef Wojtyła was elected pope on 16 October 1978, succeeding John Paul I. During his long pontificate, he upheld positions handed down by the Catholic Church on priesthood celibacy, divorce, abortion, contraception, homosexuality and women's unsuitability for ordination. He also opened a new diplomatic era for the Holy See via the numerous travels that took him all over the world.

Considered one of the Church Fathers, his effort was focussed on the Bible. In Antioch, in Palestine, in Rome then finally at Bethlehem where he spent his old age, he was busy with the translation of the Holy Books from the original. He was secretary to the Council of Constantinople, then private secretary to Pope Damasius. Jerome has left us the Vulgate, the official Latin version of the bible, declared authentic by the Church Magisterium. See also Module 5 of this course I D1

German academic born in 1654 in the Palatinate. Fluent in Hebrew, he published several pamphlets against Judaism, among which Entdecktes Judenthum in 1700.

Born in Antioch, archbishop of Constantinople from 397 to 404), he is considered the father of the Eastern Church. He owed his title of Chrysostom – golden mouthed – to his oratory and pastoral talents. He was forced into exile by a resentful Empress Aelia Eudoxia. See also Module 3 of this course III, D

Professor at Berkeley University, she is one of the standard bearers of Gender Studies. Her book Gender in Trouble, published in 1990, belongs to the canon most quoted on the subject.

A member of the Banu Asad of the Quraysh tribe in Mecca. She was a merchant and employed Muhammad as an agent to oversee her caravans heading north of the peninsula. According to tradition it was she who proposed marriage to her right hand man. They had several children some of which died in infancy. Still according to tradition, she supported him from the outset in his mission.

Born in the Grand-Duchy of Posen, Leo Beack was a much-respected Rabbi in pre-war years Germany. Originally rather conservative, he gradually evolved towards a more liberal Judaism. A chaplain during the First World War, he refused to leave Germany in 1933 defending unstintingly German Judaism until his deportation in 1943. He survived it and migrated to London where a major Jewish college bears his name today.

Pope from 1878 to his death. Leo continued in Pius IX's footsteps but also developed an interest in social in social doctrine.

the Honorable Lilian Helen Montagu, was born to a wealthy and influential British Jewish family. As from the beginning of the 20th century, she became active in Reformed Judaism calling for a better standing for the women within.

Quaker preacher, major abolitionist and feminist figure.

born in a well-to-do family the daughter of a magistrate and scholar, Malika Al-Fassi was a journalist and a nationalist activist. She was the only woman signatory of the 1944 independence manifesto.

Catholic theologian whose book The Church and the Second Sex (1968) counts among the catalysts of feminist reactions to the Second Vatican Council. In it, she highlighted the damage caused by traditional notions of a so-called “female” nature. With the publication of Beyond God The Father (1973) her thinking marked a radical shift underscored by her leaving the Catholic Church. This paved the way to post-Christian Feminist trends. In her later works she developed a new language and a new metaphysics for women in the shape of a cosmic spiritual struggle against the destructive power of phallic structures (Pure Lust : Elemental Feminist Philosophy, 1984) and advocated lesbian separatism as the only sensible option (Gyn/Ecology, 1978).

One of the Twelve and an evangelist. The first gospel in the canonical order (ca. 80-90) is attributed to him. Referred to as Levi in Marc, 2: 14 and Luke 5: 27, he was a tax collector in Capernaum when Jesus called him to follow him. He is thought to have preached the gospel in Palestine, in Ethiopia and in Persia where he died a martyr's death according to some, or, according to other accounts, a natural death at a great age.

Born like Leo Baeck in the Grand-Duchy of Posen, Max Dienemann, espoused Zionism in the 1910s. Twice detained in concentration camps, he succeeded in migrating after Kristallnacht and died soon after his arrival in Palestine.

third son and successor of Sultan Yusef ben Hassan (Mulay Yssyf), Mohammed V was chosen by the French authorities to access the throne in 1927. Dismayed by Germany's victory over France in 1940, he was prompt to show his support for Istiqlal in 1944. In 1952, having demanded Morocco's independence, he was deposed and exiled before being re-established in 1955. France recognised Morocco's independence in 1956 and Spain the following year. Mohammed V was proclaimed king of Morocco in 1957

Ursuline nun, professor of theology and ethics at the Université of Quebec at Rimouski, she has focussed her research on the relation between women and the Catholic Church and on ethics in the feminist discourse. She is one of the founders of the Catholic feminist group “L'Autre parole” and of its review in 1970. She is also involved in the network Women and Ministry which works towards the acknowledgment of women's ministry.

also known as Nachmanides and his acronym Ramban he is a major figure of mediaeval Judaism. Born in Spain at end of the 12th century he was forced to leave his country as a result of the Disputation of Barcelona in 1263. The publication of this debate organised by the King of Aragon between Nachmanides and Dominican Pablo Christiani around the nature of the Messiah resulted in his exile; he ended his days in Palestine.

Membre du clan des Omeyyades, fils de Abû Sofiân l'un des conquérants musulmans du nord de la péninsule arabique, Mu'âwiyya fut gouverneur de Damas. Fort de son nom, de ses succès militaires et de ses richesses, il contesta l'autorité du quatrième calife, ‘Alî, cousin et gendre de Muhammad. A la mort de ‘Alî, Mu'âwiyya déplaça le centre du califat de Kûfa à Damas, se fit élire roi à Jérusalem et fonda une dynastie.

professor in the Department of Classic and Religious Studies at the University of Ottawa, specialised in psychoanalysis and the relation between women and religion. She thinks that the “Judaeo-Christian” God must, in his quality as “architect of patriarchal society”, be left behind. In The Changing of the Gods: Feminism and the End of Traditional Religions (1979), she maintains that a feminist reading of the sacred texts actually introduces the foundations of a new religion the implications of which have as yet been measured but by a very few theologians, be they feminist.

Bonaparte, later Napoleon I (1769-1885): he undertook the Campaign of Egypt to break British domination in Eastern Mediterranean and in India. His military expedition had important scientific fallouts. It gave birth to the new science of Egyptology but more importantly it awoke in the Arab world an interest in European developments be they technical, scientific, cultural or political.

Born in Rayfoun (Lebanon) on 15 May 1920, he is a Lebanese Maronite cardinal. He lead Maronite church from 1986 to 2011, elected with the title of Patriarch of Antioch for the Maronites .

the Clergy house: the residence, or former residence, of the parish priests and his household

Paul the Apostle aka Saul of Tarsus (ca 5 - 67): A Jew with roman citizenship born in Tarsus, he acquired at the feet Gamaliel, a doctor of the Law in Jerusalem, a culture both Hebraic and Hellenistic. He was active in fighting the first Christians, notably attending St Stephen's martyrdom. Upon his conversion, he was christened in Damascus by Ananias of Damascus and chose to use his Roman name of Paul in the practice of his ministry taking an active part in the growth of the nascent church, founding numerous communities that he visited and kept in touch with through the regular correspondence formalized in the 13 Epistles figuring in the New Testament. He was arrested on several occasions and is thought to have been beheaded in Rome circa 67.

Paul the Apostle aka Saul of Tarsus (ca 5 - 67): A Jew with roman citizenship born in Tarsus, he acquired at the feet Gamaliel, a doctor of the Law in Jerusalem, a culture both Hebraic and Hellenistic. He was active in fighting the first Christians, notably attending St Stephen's martyrdom. Upon his conversion, he was christened in Damascus by Ananias of Damascus and chose to use his Roman name of Paul in the practice of his ministry taking an active part in the growth of the nascent church, founding numerous communities that he visited and kept in touch with through the regular correspondence formalized in the 13 Epistles figuring in the New Testament. He was arrested on several occasions and is thought to have been beheaded in Rome circa 67.

Born to an orthodox family, Paula owed her religious education to her challenging her father's decision to privilege her brothers. Married in 1919 to Rabbi William Ackerman, she joined the community he was in charge of in Mississipi. Upon his unexpected death she took charge of the community at its request for three years until a suitable replacement could be found.

born in 1965. France's first Rabbi had to train in the UK. Ordained in 1990, she practices in Paris.

Born to a wealthy Alexandrian family, Qasim amin began his studies in his then cosmopolitan city. He went on to study at the university of Monpellier in France. On his return, he pursued a carreer in the judiciary and was active in Egypt's intellectual society.

RAbbi SHlomo Itzhaki known by the acronym Rashi (ca. 1040-1105): Biblical commentator living in Troyes (France) in the 11th century. He is a major reference for mediaeval Jewish exegesis. His opinion was much thought after throughout his life. Thereafter, his commentary of the Bible and the Talmud are often quoted as authoritative.

Muslim scholar who studied under Sheikh Hassan El-Attar who visited the Institut d'Égypte founded by Bonaparte. His experience of France inspired his book titled Takhlis al-ibriz ila takhlis Bariz (A Paris Profile). He translated many works into Arabic.

from the outset a feminist, Saida Nabarawi collaborated with her friend Huda Sha'rawi. She was the editor of the monthly feminist periodical L'Égyptienne, created in 1925

first woman to be ordained rabbi and to lead a community. She led or co-led several, notably in New-Jersey until her retirement in 2000.

American abolitionist and equal rights activist. As the daughter of a rich plantation owner in South Carolina, her public interventions against slavery carried weight. The hostility she encountered in her public speaking lead to profound considerations on the position of women published in her Letters on the Equality of the Sexes.

French philosopher, essayist and author. She notably contributed to feminist thought as from the late 50s and supported the action of several women's organisations, among which the Mouvement de libération des femmes (MLF).

Muslim theologian educated at Ez-Zitouna Islamic University of Tunis

A Berber from Carthage, he converted to Christianity in his forties. In Northern Africa he was a foremost theoretician and exponent of Christianity. First among Christian writers to write in Latin, his major works are Apologeticus (197) Adversus Marcionem libri V (207-212), Tertulian contributed substantially to the creation of a new theological language.

Dominican theologian and philosopher (1224-1274. He taught at the Sorbonne in Paris and in Italy. His name remains associated with a theological approach, Thomism, noted among other things for its critical integration of elements of Aristotelian philosophy into Christian thought. He is the author of the Summa Theologica which he started writing at the end of his life and did not finish.

Dominican theologian and philosopher. Born to a Southern Italian aristocratic family he was admitted very young in the monastery at Monte Cassino. He began studying in Naples then studied in Paris, then in Cologne, under Albert the great. Having graduated in theology in 1256, he taught in diverse convents (Paris, Orvieto, Rome Naples). In his vast written output, he sought to reconcile theology and philosophy, aligning faith and reason. His theses were attacked when he was alive and some condemned after his death. He was nevertheless canonised in 1323, then proclaimed Doctor of the Church in 1567, alongside Bonaventure, his Franciscan contemporary. Both theologians thus join Augustine of Hippo, Ambrose of Milan, Jerome and Gregory the Great. (cf. I D 4 - note 22)

German rabbi who converted to Catholicism in 1482 and later became a priest. He published the Juden Buchlein inn 1508 or 1509.

Born in Bohemia, Zacharias Frankel settled in Breslau (today Wrocław in Poland) in 1854 where he ran a rabbinic seminary. Although open to modernity, Frankel offers a teaching in contrast with what he considers excessive reforms (foregoing circumcision for instance). His thought and his works are considered the wellspring of the massorti movement, often known as Conservative Judaism in the United States.