RELIGIONS AND FIGURATVE REPRESENTATION

Persian born Arabic author. He is one of the originators of classical Arabic prose. His master-work is the translation of the Persian version of Kallila and Dimna, a compilation of fables attributed in the Arab tradition to the Indian Bidpai. Some dissent with the authorities lead to his execution on the orders of Caliph Abu Ja'far Abdallah ibn Muhammad al-Mansur upon being accused of introducing Manichean thought in the Muslim religion.

American Neo-classical sculptor, known for the low-reliefs he executed on official buildings and his Walking Liberty minted on half dollar coins

Pope from 772 to795. Faced with the Lombard threat, he chose to bypass Constantinople's imperial oversight and called Charlemagne to the rescue. The Frankish expedition ended with the seizure of Pavia, the Lombard capital, and Charlemagne in possession of the Italian crown. The Carolingian authority acknowledged Adrian's ownership of the duchy of Spoleto and the city of Perugia, thereby adding to the size of the Papal States.

Aelred of Rievaulx (1110-1167): a member of the royal court of Scotland, he chose to join the Cistercian house of Rievaulx in Northern England. He travelled a lot throughout Latin Christendom thanks to the Cistercian network. He is remembered mostly for his writings on spirituality

Philosopher and theologian whose writings have been a major influence on Muslim thought, notably the revival of its religious sciences Ihya' Ulum al-Din.

French philosopher. He identified the artist to a craftsman in so far as both fashion matter and, in his view, make a greater call on observation than imagination or free expression. A rationalist atheist himself, he addressed religious art in Les arts et les dieux (The Arts and the Gods - 1958, posthumous edition) where he criticizes belief's irrational dimension and more especially monotheisms.

Son of Philip II of Macedon, king from 336. By the age of thirty, he had created one of the largest empires of the ancient world. He remained undefeated in battle and is considered one of history's most successful commanders. See Module 3 II B 2

Luther's colleague at the university of Wittenberg, he was first Luther's disciple but by radicalising his action, he found himself disavowed by Luther who deemed his “enthusiastic” theology excessive. Driven out of Saxony he eventually settled in Switzerland.

Seleucid king who reigned from 175 to 164 BCE. It is under his rule, in 168, that the Maccabean revolt erupted

A dynasty of six Roman emperors ruling from 96 to 192. Baring those of their ultimate representative, their policies proved very positive for the Empire, which reached its peak under them.

Iconoclastic bishop pronouncing the anathema in 814.

Son of Leto and Zeus, twin of Artemis. He stands among the twelve major Olympian divinities. According to some myths, Artemis helped her mother give birth to Apollo, thus accounting for her being the goddess of childbirth. Apollo boasts numerous attributes. He is the god of light, the sciences and the arts, poetry and divination. He is also a hunter god, keeper of flocks, god of eternal youth, of medicine and of beauty. He is besides a violent, nocturnal god the god of sudden death

African born Christian philosopher and theologian. He is one of the most significant thinkers of Early Christianity and, with Ambrose of Milan, Jerome and Gregory the Great, one of the four Church Fathers of the Latin Church. His influence on Christianity is immense. Born to a Berber family in then Roman North Africa, he studied in Carthage and, while staying in Italy, he met Ambrose in Milan. He decided to abandon Manichaeism and convert to Christianity (386). He was appointed bishop of Hippo after his return in North Africa (395) and died in the city during the Vandal siege. He left behind him an impressive body of work of defence and explanation of the Christian faith. His three major books (The city of god, the Confessions and On the Trinity) are classics of theology, philosophy and literature.

Theologian and Anabaptist church leader (his movement rejects infant baptism for one thing as well as the idea that the Church should maintain relations with political power and civil society). He was arrested, accused of heresy and rebellion and sentenced to be burnt at the stake

Monk canonized by the Church as early as 1174, after a speedy process. Born in an aristocratic Burgundian family, he turned to monasticism and was admitted in Cîteaux along with several close companions in 1113. His community entrusted him with the establishment of an abbey at Clairvaux, of which he would remain the abbot to the end of his life. His charisma and his determination to advance the Cistercian order led, from the 1120s to his involvement in church affairs concerning the whole of Latin Christendom: The schism of Anacletus in 1130, the election of Cistercian pope Eugene III formerly a monk at Clairvaux; the fight against the Cathares in 1145 or even the predication of the Second Crusade in 1146. His written output is immense and was a major influence on medieval spirituality.

Honorific title meaning "the Enlightened One", that is the one who has awakened to reality in its truth. If it refers to one specific individual, that person is Prince Siddhartha Gautama, whose existence is not confirmed but whom later sources place around 560-480 BC and whose hagiography relates his spiritual progress right up to his accession to the stage of “buddha”. In its generic sense, buddha is spelt entirely in lower case. When referring to a particular buddha, the capital B will be used e.g. “Buddha Gautama”, “Buddha Mahāvairocana” etc..

high priest between 18 and 36/37 CE.

Roman emperor reigning from 37 to 41 CE. Son of Germanicus, thus Tiberius' adopted grandson he succeeded him for a short reign during which his drive for power found a notable expression in the affirmation of the divine nature of the emperors. His decisions were underscored by a brutality that frightened his entourage. He was murdered by soldiers of the Praetorian guard.

Carolus Magnus, known as Charlemagne sovereign of the Frankish kingdom from 768 to 814. At the death of his father (Pepin III the Short, he accessed to power and promptly sidelined his brother to govern alone. Although he did not found it, he left his name to the Carolingian dynasty because of the prestige associated to his person and reign. Through conquest (Bavaria, Italy, Saxony, Catalogna) he considerably enlarged the kingdom the organisation of which he undertook around a royal court which he had soon fixed in Aachen. The imperial coronation in Rome on 25 December 800 consecrated the return of a Christian Empire in the west. This political re-birth of the Christian West was also a cultural revival which saw the thriving of arts and letters. At his death in 814, he left to his son Louis the Pious a prosperous empire, a fitting match to the Byzantine Empire.

Carolus Magnus, known as Charlemagne sovereign of the Frankish kingdom from 768 to 814. At the death of his father (Pepin III the Short, he accessed to power and promptly sidelined his brother to govern alone. Although he did not found it, he left his name to the Carolingian dynasty because of the prestige associated to his person and reign. Through conquest (Bavaria, Italy, Saxony, Catalogna) he considerably enlarged the kingdom the organisation of which he undertook around a royal court which he had soon fixed in Aachen. The imperial coronation in Rome on 25 December 800 consecrated the return of a Christian Empire in the west. This political re-birth of the Christian West was also a cultural revival which saw the thriving of arts and letters. At his death in 814, he left to his son Louis the Pious a prosperous empire, a fitting match to the Byzantine Empire.

Son of Leo III. Associated to the throne as from 720, he succeeded his father but not before facing down Artabasdos who had usurped the throne and taken over the capital city (741-743). He then fought the Arabs and had to defend Constantinople against the Bulgarians (756) whom he trounced at Anchialos (763), winning thereafter several victories against the Slavs. In Italy the seizure of Ravenna by the Lombards resulted in the loss of the Exarchate (the part of Italy and Dalmatia still under Byzantine control in 751). Pepin then Charlemagne's interference in the quarrel with Rome destroyed Byzance's efforts to reconquer the peninsula. Within the Empire, Constantine first sought to negotiate the implementation of faith-related decisions but faced with resistance, he resorted to violence. The cult of the virgin and the saints was forbidden, the monasteries secularised, their property confiscated; monks and nuns were forced to marry. This attitude would earn the Emperor the titles of copronymus.

Byzantine Emperor, son of Leo IV and Irene. Barely aged 10 at his father‘s death, he first ruled under the regency of his mother, Irene who succeeded in excluding him from power. In 790 a military coup enabled him to finally wield imperial power. However his defeats before the Bulgarians (792) and the Arabs (797) lost him support in the army. His second marriage alienated the Church establishment and facilitated Irene's usurpation after he called her back to court. She had him blinded and replaced him on the throne.

Central buddha of esoteric Buddhism, this universal buddha represents both reality and the totality of the cosmos. As the translation of his name, “Great Sun” suggests, he is the very incarnation of the “light” of Buddhist enlightenment.

Grand Old Man of Lebanese painting. He was one of the first to study painting at the Academy Saint Luke, directed by Roberto Bompiani (1821-1908). He is famous for his portraits and his churches and convents works. He exhibited his work abroad, in Egypt and in Europe where France honoured him with her Prix d'Honneur de l'excellence.

Artemis in Greek mythology, was the goddess of the hunt, being associated with wild animals and woodland in most Latin provinces.

Greek god of luxuriance, Vine, Grape Harvest, Winemaking, Wine, Ritual Madness, Religious Ecstasy, and Theatre; he wanders about primal nature, teaching men the art of vine growing and wine making. He was also a god of fertility and of what was thought of as the uncivilized world.

Ernest Renan: voir Module 4 ID2 note 11

king of Judah whose aggressive policies towards the Assyrians saw his kingdom ransacked in 701 by Sennacherib's Syrian troops. When he besieged Jerusalem, Ezechias was compelled to pay a tribute and to give part of his territory to the Assyrians.

Iranian painter and graphist who seeks to bring together painting and literature through symbolic figures and histories she uses in her work.

Son of Isamil Pasha, viceroy of Egypt, he first reigned as a sultan (1917-1922) then as king up to his death in 1936.

Monk of Fontesmes (or Fontenoy), a hermitage in the Morvan; he joined the Cistercian order in 1128,and moved to the monastery of Reigny (or Régny) in 1134.

When he became patriarch of Constantinople (715-730) Germanus was no stranger to the turbulences of high power. He had been disgraced by Constantine IV and sent to a monastery whence he emerged to become Bishop of Cyzicus. He took part in the 712 council of Constantinople which abolished the canons of the Third Council of Constantinople (680-681).

Nobleman from Picardy who entertained at the royal court as a minstrel before joining Froidmond Cistercian monastery in the 1190s. He authored several monastic treatises influenced by his poetic training.

Well-born young woman, she dedicated herself to studying and became Abelard's student then his mistress between 1113 and 1117 before their secret marriage. But her family took revenge on Abelard and had him castrated and she became a nun first in Argenteuil then in her own foundation of the Paraclete of which she was the abbess as from 1135. She remained in epistolary contact with Abelard and drew from his teaching whilst he supported her in her projects.

Cleric active from 1120 to 1174. A canon and prior of Saint-Nicolas de Reigny in Picardy from 1132, he became the prior de Saint-Laurent-aux-Bois en 1153. His short treatises are written in plain language for the purpose of popularization.

Chinese monk initiated to esoteric Buddhism by the Indian monk Amoghavajra (795-774). He met Kūkai in the last months of his life and recognized him for his successor, passing on to him all his knowledge with all speed. Huiguo is considered the seventh patriarch of the Shingon School, Kūkai being the eighth.

King of Athens according to Greek mythology. He is recorded as having been hospitable to Dionysus who taught him wine-making in return. Pleased with this new creation, Icarius shared it with shepherds in a feast but, frightened by the hitherto unknown experience of drunkenness, they thought themselves poisoned and killed Icarius.

Scholaster at Regensburg Cathedral in Bavaria at the beginning of his career (1132-1142). He joined the monastery of Prüfening in that Parish circa 1144. Moved to another Cistercian monastery, perhaps in Austria, there are no traces of him after 1176.

Byzantine Empress regnant (797-802) She was empress consort as the wife of Leo IV and empress dowager and regent for their son Constantine when the Emperor died. Encouraged by Patriarch Tarasios she called the Council of Nicaea which condemned iconoclastic theories and admitted the veneration of images (787). She attempted to cling to power after her son's majority but a military mutiny forced her abdication (December 790). She was called back by Constantine VI (792) but intrigued against him, accused him of bigamy after his divorce (795) unseated him and had his eyes gouged out (July (797). She is known to have used the masculine title of Basileus. Betrayals and military setbacks forced her to pay a tribute to the Abbasids (798) and she could not forestall further Slav encroachments. With a view to reestablish imperial unity, she sought alliances with Charlemagne whose coronation as Emperor in 800 was seen as a usurpation. In 802, the Empress was exiled to Lesbos where she died the following year.

Sultan ruling Morocco from 1657 and 1727. Considered a major figure in Moroccan history for achieving full independence from the Ottoman and retaking European harbour enclaves.

Jean Calvin (1509-1564): French jurist and theologian, he settled in Geneva in 1536. Forced out of the town in 1538, he was called back in 1541 and set up a church model that had a lasting influence on Protestantism in France and the English speaking world. His opus magnum, which went through many versions, is entitled The Institutes (that is teachings) of the Christian Religion.

Christian born in Dalmatia, he studied in Rome then moved away and travelled to Syria. When he returned to Rome, Pope Damasus I asked him to revise the Latin translations of the Bible. He personally drafted his own version that outclassed all the others in the Latin speaking Christian world. It would become known as the Vulgate or textus vulgatus (common text). The Council of Trent extends the authority its extensive use had given this translation, describing it as “authentic”, meaning that it was to be entirely trusted in matters of faith. Jerome was canonized in the Catholic Church and acknowledged a Doctor of the Church.

Born in Christian Arab family in Damascus, John Mansour belonged to the wealthy literate classes. He first worked for the Umayyad caliph. At the time of the first iconoclasm, he opposed the Byzantine emperor's position and penned a vigorous defense of the use of imagery in worship. Faced with a vindictive Byzantine authority he chose to withdraw from the world and became a monk, which did not curb his active fight against iconoclasm He published three treatises against the iconoclasts (as well as others against the Jacobites, the Nestorians and the Manicheans).

Philosopher, theologian He is the author of De fide orthodoxa and The Fountain of Knowledge which was going to be the reference in the East throughout the Byzantine Middle-Ages. It would be translated three times into Latin from the 9th to the 13th century. It contributed to the dissemination of the Aristotelian vocabulary in Latin and to the rough systematization implemented by the Scholastics. In the Byzantine Empire, his works in Greek propose the adoration of the unknowable God by means of hymns or icons. He fought Islam on doctrinal grounds, defining that religion as a Christian heresy while still retaining the respect of Muslim elites. Anathemised at the Council of Hieria (745), he was made a Doctor of the Church by the Roman Catholic Church (1890)

Born in Christian Arab family in Damascus, John Mansour belonged to the wealthy literate classes. He first worked for the Umayyad caliph. At the time of the first iconoclasm, he opposed the Byzantine emperor's position and penned a vigorous defense of the use of imagery in worship. Faced with a vindictive Byzantine authority he chose to withdraw from the world and became a monk, which did not curb his active fight against iconoclasm He published three treatises against the iconoclasts (as well as others against the Jacobites, the Nestorians and the Manicheans).

Philosopher, theologian He is the author of De fide orthodoxa and The Fountain of Knowledge which was going to be the reference in the East throughout the Byzantine Middle-Ages. It would be translated three times into Latin from the 9th to the 13th century. It contributed to the dissemination of the Aristotelian vocabulary in Latin and to the rough systematization implemented by the Scholastics. In the Byzantine Empire, his works in Greek propose the adoration of the unknowable God by means of hymns or icons. He fought Islam on doctrinal grounds, defining that religion as a Christian heresy while still retaining the respect of Muslim elites. Anathemised at the Council of Hieria (745), he was made a Doctor of the Church by the Roman Catholic Church (1890)

Patriarch of Constantinople from 837 to 843. Renowned for his knowledge, he was entrusted with the task of retrieving and assembling all the religious material supporting the iconoclastic doctrine.

King of Judah (640-609) who succeeded in releasing his kingdom from the Assyrian stranglehold and to return it to its territorial wholeness. However when he died, Egypt was laying claims to controlling the kingdom of Judah.

Berber king of Mauretania. He was brought up in Rome as a result of his father Juba I's defeat and suicide, befriended by Octavian and married to Cleopatra-Selene, daughter of Cleopatra VII and Mark-Antony. Established as king of Mauretania at Cherchell (renamed Caesarea) in 25, he proved to be a scholarly monarch, steeped in classical culture and a collector of objets d'art. He set up exploratory expeditions towards the springs of the Nile to the East and the Canary Island to the West. The author of treatises of history and geography, he showed unfailing loyalty to Rome.

King of Numidia, grand-son of Massinissa who had been Rome's ally in the Punic Wars. Sent off to Spain by king Micipsa, he served there in auxiliary units of the Roman army, alongside Gaius Marius. Adopted by Micipsa, king of Numidia ca. 125 BCE, he became one of the three heirs to his kingdom in 118-117. Rejecting the sharing arrangement, Jugurtha had one of his half brothers killed while invading the other's kingdom. A Roman mediation eventually degenerated into war. Started in 111, it temporarily abated as the Numidian monarch submitted whilst buying the support of Senators and magistrates. He resumed the fight the following year and was defeated in 105. He died of starvation in the tullianum where he was thrown after being paraded in his victor Marius' Triumph.

Roman emperor (527-565). The nephew of Emperor Justin I, Justinian was supporting his uncle as early as 518, before being associated to the throne in April 527. He succeeded him at his death in August 527. Equipped with a sound classical culture and a considerable working capacity, he took an interest in law and theology. He led a range of military campaigns and left the Empire at its largest geographic extension in the 6th century.

Iranian painter, self-taught artist who sometime supported himself as a fruit-seller in Southern Tehran. In the 90s, he enrolled on a university course on Persian painting and literature in Tehran.

Kūkai 空海 (774-835): Japanese monk born in a scholarly Confucianist family. During a two-year expedition to China (804-806), he met Monk Huiguo who became his master. Not content to initiate him to esoteric Buddhism, Huiguo made Kūkai his leading disciple. Back in Japan, Kūkai struggled for a time in his attempt to advance his teaching in the capital but in 816, Emperor Saga (786-842), reigning from 809 to 823, granted him the right to build a monastery dedicated to esoteric Buddhism on Mount Kōya, in the Kii peninsula. In 823, he was called to direct the Tō-ji (East Temple) in Kyōto, henceforward progressing through to the highest rungs of the ecclesiastical hierarchy.

Byzantine emperor (717-741) who enjoyed unanimous approbation on his choosing. He defended his empire by pushing back the Arabs who besieged Constantinople (August 717- August 718) thanks to an alliance with the Bulgarians. He would later defeat an Umayyad force at Akroinon (740). After repressing uprisings in Sicily (718) and in Thessalonica (720), he associated his young son to his rule and reorganised the military, financial and legal administrations (Ecloga, 740). The ban on icons (edicts of 726 and 730), a decision partaking in a religious reforming drive caused the iconoclast controversy which is at the origin of the break with Rome and the loss of Italy. He is not to be confused with the pope by the same name (Leo III (795-816)

Byzantine emperor, son of Constantine V whose policy towards the Bulgarian he upheld (baptism of Khan Telerig, 777). He fought the Arabs (expeditions in Syria in 778 then in Anatolia in 779. An iconoclast, he first acted prudently because of his brothers' intrigues but he resumed the persecutions after exiling them.

Byzantine emperor (813-820). A general in the imperial army, a military coup placed him on the throne. He defended Constantinople against a Bulgarian campaign (813) and defeated them the following ear. Defending iconoclastic views, he started a second period of debates and conflicts (815-842). He deposed Patriarch Nikephoros (815) and had a synod in Constantinople re-affirm the 754 decisions. He lost his throne (and his life) to Michael the Amorian in December 820.

a Jewish family (Mattathias, Judah, Simon, and Jonathan) spearheading the revolt against the Seleucid rule from 168. Simon Maccabee founded the Hasmonean dynasty that remained in power up until 37 CE.

Algerian born French anthropologist, psychoanalyst and philosopher, he has written a large number of books on Islam, notably on the body and on love and eroticism. He has also translated the Quran into French (2009).

Theologian whose “95 Theses” set off the so-called “Protestant” Reformation. Starting from a reading of Paul's Epistles much indebted to Augustine (354-430), he points out that God grants salvation to humanity as a gratuitous gift of his own volition, not as a reward for good deeds (this key article of the Reformation is known as “Justification by faith alone”). Luther's movement caused a schism and the setting up of another church, independent from the Roman church lead by the Pope.

Italian sculptor, painter, architect, poet, and engineer of the High Renaissance who greatly influenced the development of Western art. Already considered the greatest artist of the day when alive, he has retained his status as one of the greatest artists of all times.

Having sculpted two of his best-known works, the Pietà and David, before the age of thirty, Michelangelo went on to create the famed frescoes of the Vatican's Sistine Chapel: the scenes from Genesis on the ceiling, and The Last Judgment on its altar wall. At the age of 74, he took over as the architect of St. Peter's Basilica. The western end was finished to his design, as was the dome, with some modification, after his death. These works, among the most famous masterpieces in existence are but the most famed examples of a Michelangelo's enormous output.

Syro-American film producer and director, known for his production of the Halloween films. In 1980, he directed The Lion of the Desert on Libyan resistance to the Italian colonizer.

Born in a village of the Egyptian Delta, he studied at Al Azhar where he met Al-Afghâni and became his disciple. Forced into exile following the enforcement of the British protectorate, he settled in Beirut then in Paris where he founded with his master the review al-Urwah al-Wuthqa ("The Indissoluble Link") in 1884. Back in Egypt he was appointed to the highest religious posts without succeeding in bringing about the reform he wished on Al-Azhar. He is the author of many theological works among which a “Treatise on the oneness of God;” (1897)

Born in a village from northern Lebanon, Muhammad Rashid Rida went to Cairo to study. There he cofounded the review Al-Manar (1898-1940) with Muhammad ‘Abduh whose intellectual heritage he would claim in its integrity after his death. During the twenties he sought to establish a new kind of caliphate after its abolition decided by Atatürk in 1924; He clashed with other “reformist” clerics such as Ali Abdel Raziq whose condemnation he called for. He enjoyed financial backing from Ibn Saud towards the promotion of his works and warned against the ideology ferried by the Muslim Brotherhood the first cell of which was founded in 1928 by Hassan al-Banna.

Turkish officer in the Ottoman army during WWI, he went on to create the Republic of Turkey and be his first president. A relentless modernizer, his goal was to turn Turkey into a Western style state, e.g. by adopting its cultural genres.

Byzantine emperor (802-811). Appointed finance minister (logothetēs tou genikou) by Irene, he seized power in a palace coup in October 802. His support for the worship of icons set him at loggerheads with powerful elements in the church. He reformed finances, reorganized the byzantine war machine. His settlement policies in the Slav regions restored Constantinople's hegemony in the Balkans after his victory at Patras in 805. However, he could not regain Byzantine control over Venice (809) and was defeated by the Arabs so had to accept Harun e-Rashid's humiliating terms. At the term of a major expedition against the Bulgarians, he and his army were massacred by Khan Krum in 811

Influential theologian whose orthodoxy was several times questioned. A brilliant teacher in Paris in the 1110s, he became a Benedictine monk at Saint Denis. Bernard de Clairvaux had him condemned at the Council of Soissons in 1121, then at the Council of Sens in 1140.

Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, usually known in English as Pompey or Pompey the Great, was a military and political leader of the late Roman Republic. From 66 to 63 BCE he led a military campaign in the Eastern Mediterranean, which he completely restructured by annexing kingdoms and appointing kings favourable to Rome. He formed a government jointly with Caesar and Crassus in the first Triumvirate. But his rivalry with Caesar lead to a civil war in which he was defeated at Pharsalus in 48. He sought refuge in Egypt but king Ptolemy had him murdered to ingratiate himself with Caesar

Greek dynasty established by Ptolemy I, one of Alexander's generals. It ruled Egypt during the Hellenistic period. The ultimate monarch of that dynasty Cleopatra VII was defeated at Actium by Octavian in 31 BCE and her kingdom was annexed to Rome in the following year

Italian Renaissance painter and architect. He studied under Perugino and worked in Perugia, Florence and Rome where he worked for Popes Julius II and Leo X. The art of this master of classicism combines a precise draughtsmanship with harmonious lines and subtle shades. Among his masterpieces, besides the famous portraits and Madonnas we shall single out Transfiguration (1517-c. 1520) at the Vatican Museum and some of the frescoes in the Vatican “Rooms”: The Disputation of the Sacrament, The Expulsion of Heliodorus from the Temple etc.). His influence is immeasurable until the end of the 19th century.

Minister to the Mongol emperor Ghazan Khan whose court was at Tabriz, he authored an illustrated Compendium of Chronicles (Jāmiʿ al-Tawārīkh)

American screenwriter, producer, director and composer who worked for some time for the Walt Disney studios

Specialist of Japanese Buddhism. He was the first professor of Japanese studies appointed at the University of Geneva, where he taught from 1976 to 1993.

Soldier saint martyred for his Christian faith during Diocletian's persecution in 304. He is the archetypal knight, protector of women and patron saint of soldiers. He is often shown as a young horseman in full armour fighting the dragon to save the king's daughter.

Lebanese painter, whose innovatory art merged original autochtonic elements into a style steeped in European traditions. His early 30s work combines descriptive paintings of the natural environment with minor nods to minimalism and traditional church paintings. He modulates sculptural and multi-dimensional modes in his paintings as he shifts from figurative to abstraction.

Assyrian king who conquered the kingdom of Israel in 722.

in Roman mythology, the Seasons were four goddesses representing the four periods in the year (winter, spring, summer, autumn)

Greek dynasty founded by an officer in the Macedonian army under Alexander the Great; they ruled over a kingdom stretching from Syria to Central Asia (but gradually dwindling). In spite of a short-lived age of splendour at the beginning of the 2nd century, during the reign of Antiochus III, the kingdom entered a steady decline and was finally annexed to Rome by Pompey in 64 BCE.

Tenth bishop of Marseilles, probably died in 601. He is only know because of his exchange with Pope Gregory the Great, which created the occasion for Gregory to condemn iconoclasm and to grant images a value.

A dynasty of Roman emperors ruling from 193 to 235, succeeding the Antonines. The death of their last representative was followed by a long period of governmental chaos and military anarchy.

Ismail I is the founder of the Safavid dynasty. He reigned from 1501 to his death. The Persian term ‘Shah' means ‘king'. Successful in his eastern campaigns against the Uzbeks, he failed in the West against the Ottoman Empire. An art lover, he drew to his court, the best miniaturists of his time who created the conditions for the School of Tabriz to flourish.

Roman solar god, became an official cult under Aurelian (270-275)

A warrior saint whose name means God's gift. Probably a Christian soldier martyred during the persecution of Diocletian (244-311), which started in 303 in a town currently known as Amasya in Turkey.

English born monk, belatedly canonized in 1628. He was one of Cîteaux's founding fathers in 1098 and became its third abbot in 1109. His abbotship, all too often outshined in later years by the even greater influence of Bernard of Clairvaux in the years 1130-1153, marks the beginning of the Cistercian expansion. He stood down in 1133 and died the following year.

Born in Iraq in 1935, he graduated from Al-Azhar in Cairo and went on to teach in Ryadh. He founded the Fiqh Council of North America, which he presided over for some time. He was president of Cordoba University in Virginia.

Roman born in Carthage, he was one of the thinkers whose writing helped fix Primitive Christian doctrine within the Roman world. To wit the fact that he was first to introduce in Latin the notion of “Trinity” and to define it. His considerable influence made him a Church Father.

Byzantine empress consort then regent (842-856). As such she reversed the iconoclastic policies of her husband Theophilos and called a council to reinstate the veneration of icons. She pursued a vigorous campaign of persecution of the Paulicians. The suspected heretics allied themselves to Muslims on the fringes of the Byzantine Empire. She failed to prevent the Arabs from taking over Sicily (842-847) but ably governed the empire, replenishing the treasury and pacifying her northern border. Having gained considerable influence over her son and heir Michael III, her brother forced her out of power (856). She retired in a monastery in 858. She is venerated as a saint in the Eastern church.

A Spanish born Visigoth, he arrived at Charlemagne's court around 780 and was soon Bishop of Orléans. In 804, at Alcuin's death, he became Charlemagne' theological and ecclesiastical adviser, a position he still held under Louis the Pious. In 818, he was accused of conspiracy and exiled to Angers where he died. He produced intellectual work of major import and worked at the revision of the Biblical text undertaken by Alcuin. Having authored theology treatises, he is presumed to have supervised and organised the Libri Carolini, the Carolingian response to the images controversy. As a poet (80 pieces attributed to him have been preserved) he also proves a fine connoisseur of the Latin classics.

Dominican theologian and philosopher. Born to a Southern Italian aristocratic family he was admitted very young in the monastery at Monte Cassino. He began studying in Naples then studied in Paris, then in Cologne, under Albert the great. Having graduated in theology in 1256, he taught in diverse convents (Paris, Orvieto, Rome Naples). In his vast written output, he sought to reconcile theology and philosophy, aligning faith and reason. His theses were attacked when he was alive and some condemned after his death. He was nevertheless canonised in 1323, then proclaimed Doctor of the Church in 1567, alongside Bonaventure, his Franciscan contemporary. Both theologians thus join Augustine of Hippo, Ambrose of Milan, Jerome and Gregory the Great.

Dominican theologian and philosopher. Born to a Southern Italian aristocratic family he was admitted very young in the monastery at Monte Cassino. He began studying in Naples then studied in Paris, then in Cologne, under Albert the great. Having graduated in theology in 1256, he taught in diverse convents (Paris, Orvieto, Rome Naples). In his vast written output, he sought to reconcile theology and philosophy, aligning faith and reason. His theses were attacked when he was alive and some condemned after his death. He was nevertheless canonised in 1323, then proclaimed Doctor of the Church in 1567, alongside Bonaventure, his Franciscan contemporary. Both theologians thus join Augustine of Hippo, Ambrose of Milan, Jerome and Gregory the Great.

German reformer whose views soon diverged from Luther's. According to him, the Second Coming loomed large: it was therefore necessary to cast out evil men, violently if need be and to establish on earth a church of the pure. Müntzer played an important part in the Peasants Revolt (1525). He was arrested and speedily condemned to death.

see bio in Module 3, II, C

Italian painter. Influenced by his master Giorgione he became an international artist who worked for popes, for Francis I of France, Charles V and Philip II of Spain. He exercised a major influence on European art. Leaving aside his numerous portraits and to quote only two of his canvasses we shall mention here the Assumption of the Virgin in the Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari (Venice) and the Venus of Urbino in the Uffizi (Florence)

Swiss Reformer from Zurich . His doctrine, though fundamentally that of Luther diverges on a few points (notably his understanding of the Lord's Supper and the conception of the relationship between the church and the state.

One of the masters of the Venetian School. His paintings stand out for the movement, the luxuriance of clear shades and architectural features in them. Best known among them are The Wedding at Cana (1563) and The Feast in the House of Levi (1573).

Born in 18th century Arabia, this trend was preached by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1792): Muslim scholar belonging to the Banu Tamim tribe settled in the Nedj in the centre of the Arabic peninsula, educated in the Hanbali school of jurisprudence. He studied in Basra, Mecca (where he opposed mufti Ibn Humaydi) and Medina. The earliest and most telling expressions of his singularity were his rejection of the cult of “saints” which he deemed idolatrous. He ceased being an outsider when he formed an alliance with a tribe leader in the person of Muhammad ibn Saud on the basis of an oath of loyalty (bay'ah) supposedly exchanged in 1744. Henceforward both families' destinies would be closely connected in all their ups and downs. He wrote several books among which Kitab at-Tawhid (The Book of the Unity of God). Since the creation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932, Wahhabism is the official creed there. See also Module 2 of this course Chap. II C 2 and Module 4 III B

Born in the Dauphiné, he studied in Paris from 1509 on. After 1517, he was teaching grammar and philosophy. He was a member of the Cenacle of Meaux and advocated reformation but his rashness led to his leaving the group in 1523. He took refuge in Basel where Œcolampadius (1482-1531; converted to the reformation in 1522; taught at Basel university where he preached the reformation) welcomed him. He then stayed in Montbelliard before taking refuge in Strasburg. From 1525 to 1530, he worked at the reformation of Bern's French speaking baillages before becoming pastor at Aigle. In 1530, he won Neuchatel over to the Reformation. Still preaching, he took part in Geneva's reformation, staying there with Calvin until 1538. Forced out of Geneva he returned to Neuchatel whence he travelled around to preach. He died in Neuchatel in 1565.

Benedictine monk and abbot of Saint-Thierry near Rheims from 1119 to 1135. He was in contact with Bernard of Clairvaux whose community he wanted to join. Bernard, however asked him to stay in his post. A prolific author, he joined in the attacks against Abelard. He withdrew at the end of his life in the Cistercian house at Signy.

philosopher, military chief and historian. Born in an aristocratic and wealthy family, Xenophon was one of Socrates' pupils. He defended the city of Athens during the Peloponnesian War. Having joined the Ten Thousand in Cyrus's military expedition, he was chosen as general to lead them safely out of enemy territory after his death and that of the Greek leaders, eventually returning to their own in Trebizond. He authored books of philosophy (Apology, Memorabilia, Symposium), history (Anabasis; Hellenica) and political and technical treatises are also attributed to him.

Arab painter and calligrapher, born in Wasit in Southern Mesopotamia. He is the leading exponent of the Baghdad school, marked by, among other, Turkish, Muslim and Christian Arab (Syriac) influences. His style is, to some extent realist.

Yazgerd acceded to the throne in 632. In the confrontation with Muslim armies from the Arab Peninsula, he was defeated after a hard-fought battle at Qadisiyya (637). With a newly constituted army, he won the Battle of Nahavand in 642 but was defeated the following year in a battle known to Muslims as Fath al Futuh, the "Victory of Victories". He kept up a guerrilla warfare until he was murdered in 651. His son had to flee to China. Thereafter, Persia was to be ruled by the Umayyad Caliphs.

A Rabbi who lived between the last quarter of the 2nd and the first quarter of the 3rd century, that is in the decades following the destruction of the Temple. He was the editor of the Misnah and fulfilled the post of nassi. He transferred his academy (standing in for the Sanhedrin after the loss of political power) to Bet Shearim then Sepphoris in the Galliee.

Born in 1926 in Egypt, Qaradawi studied at al-Azhar, influenced by the Muslim Brotherhood's stance. In 1975, he was laying the foundation for the Faculty of Shari'ah and Islamic Studies in the University of Qatar having acquired the Qatari nationality. He has authored some forty books translated in many languages; he converses with the believers via the internet and broadcasts on Al-Jazeera. His programme entitled Sharia Law and Living has made him one of the most famous “teleislamists”. He is the chairman of the International Union for Muslim Scholars (IUMS) and of the European Council for Fatwa and Research. He is barred from entry in France and the current Egyptian regime has sought an Interpol arrest warrant against him.

Renowned Egyptian actor who stared in some fifty films or more, mainly in Egypt but abroad as well.

Egyptian film director, author of claymotion animations.

the god of gods in the Greek Pantheon. Son of the Titan Cronus and Rhea, married to his sister Hera and father to a vast progeny. He reigns on Mount Olympus and runs the heavenly forces while being also presented as the protector of men.

Little is known of his biography and nothing of his chronology (somewhere between the 15th and the 6th century BCE). He is given as a reformer of the ancient cult of Ahura Mazda and the founder of Zoroastrianism.