Honouring the gods in the classical Mediterranean realm and on its fringes

At the apex of hierarchical societies, the Tyrian aristocracy

Phoenician and Punic societies were broadly stratified. Symbolic and real powers were in the hands of an aristocracy originating from Tyre which held sway over a city's economy, politics and religion. The rest of society essentially consisted of artisans and traders. The place of women in society remains ill-defined in so far as trustworthy documentation on the subject is exceedingly rare, and contradictory.

In Carthage, founded by Tyrians circa 814 or 812 BC, aristocratic wealth was linked to ship and land ownership. This Carthaginian aristocracy's wealth also correlated with the key role it played in public office matters. The priesthood was recruited in these privileged classes too. Although they formed a strongly structured cast, priests played no significant political role. Of the lower classes, little is known and the data available is hazy and confusing. The native populations referred to a «  Libyans[1] » in the sources are even more difficult to figure out than those come from the East. It is conjectured that society consisted of « free » men and slaves diversely attached to a person or to the Carthaginian city. The city also harboured a sizeable number of “foreigners” hailing from other Mediterranean regions. Herodotus[2] refers to the “silent trade or « dumb barter » practiced by early sailors. Originally pacific trading relationships yielded, with time, hegemonic ones.

Carthage's political organisation has been lauded by some classical authors but they are short on details as to the city's state apparatus. Historian Polybius[3] explains that the « regime » was « well contrived » but had subsequently weakened. Aristotle[4] cites the city' as a model of mixed constitution the superiority of which he demonstrates at length. This document has been disputed in that it describes a late stage of the city's development. It remains that historians concur to write that Phoenician cities, Carthage included, were governed by a king, with the support of a council or assembly – as was indeed the case for a number of East-Mediterranean peoples. The Phoenician kings known in Tyre did not wield absolute power. In Carthage, the government was primarily comprised of a Senate[5] and two [6]Suffets[6] who exercised the legislative and judiciary powers. The Senate had supreme power; it included the most influential families and counted several hundred privileged members. It was competent in city matters: war peace, diplomatic and economic agreements. Military chiefs reported back to it. On this crucial matter sources are not consistent. Aristotle alone refers to a “select committee”, the Hundred and Four that had a judiciary and legislative role but no political clout. Military power was the preserve of chiefs elected every year, recruited from among the city's aristocratic families and elected by a « popular assembly[7] ».

A « popular assembly » is mentioned in Aristotle's text without enlightening us on its actual mechanisms and political functions. Historian Polybius tells us that that instance came into its own in the course of the 3rd and 2nd century BC. But this political setup, praised by some authors, did not succeed in stemming corruption, which, widespread, was denounced by Polybius. Diodorus Siculus[8] refers to some unsavoury cases taken before this “popular assembly”. There is not an adequate volume of trustworthy documents to assess the extent of power-sharing in Carthage. The major families of merchants and business people exercised most of the power. As for the stranglehold of Carthage on its neighbours, it would have dire consequences, notably during the Punic Wars[9], as shown by recurring revolts reproducing their devastating impact. The indigenous populations contributed to the fall of the city through their successive encroachments during this period which resulted in the consolidation of Roman power. Carthage's fall could be linked to failings in military recruitment. The Punic army included soldiers from diverse origins: mercenaries, volunteer citizens but also subjects from conquered territories. Such a vastly diverse socio-demographic base was bound to destabilize its military organization in the long term – especially once the city-state was no longer able to pay enlisted professional or occasional soldiers as happened during the Mercenary War[10] directly after the first Punic War. (264-241 BC)

  1. Libyans

    The term Libyan was applied to a whole range of peoples living in Northern Africa before the Phoenician's arrival; According to some classical historians taking their cue from Pliny the Elder: “Africa was called Libya by the Greeks and the sea in front of it the Libyan sea.”

  2. Herodotus (c. 484-c. 420 BC)

    The “father of history” (in Cicero's words) proposes that the cult of Poseidon originated in Libya whence the Greeks borrowed it (Book II, 50). The information gleaned in the course of his extensive travelling also ranks him among the first geographers. We owe him the first text of Greek literature defining the various forms of government, the first text of political thought. In his Histories, III, 80.1 he puts in the mouth of three Persians (King Darius and his generals Ótanes and Megabizo) the benefits and harms of the monarchy, democracy and oligarchy. According to him the cult of a marine god was averred among the Libyans long before the foundation of Carthage: “those who dwell round the lake Tritonis (Gulf of Gabes), he wrote, sacrifice most of all to Athene, and next, to Triton and Poseidon” (Histoires, IV, 188).

  3. Polybius (c. 200–c. 118 BC)

    Polybius was an elected hipparchus, or cavalry leader in the Achean league facing the Romans at the battle of Pydna (168 BC) which saw the defeat of Perseus of Macedon. He was to be a hostage in Rome for 17 years. During his time in the capital he enjoyed extensive contacts with the Roman oligarchy, and more specifically Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus, the conqueror of Macedon and his host, who entrusted him with the education of his two sons. Later, he would be at the side of one of them, Scipio Aemilianus, at the fall of Carthage, in Africa (146 BC) and of Numantia in Spain (133 BC). The second part of his life was dedicated to the drafting of his magnum opus, The Histories, in which he relates in forty book the history of Rome, Greece and the Eastern states starting with the First Punic War. Only the first five books of this history are extant along with sizeable fragments from the others. He also wrote a biography of Philopoemen (3 volumes), a treatise entitled Tactics, a report on the Equatorial regions and a historical monograph on the events of the Numantine War.

  4. Aristotle (384-c.322BC)

    Greek philosopher; for over twenty years Plato's disciple, he would thereafter distance himself from his master's theses. His writings and thoughts have deeply influenced the entire European philosophical tradition. A polymath he was interested in both arts and sciences and put forward theoretical bases for the latter which he sought to underpin with empirical research. He developed fundamental thinking on the ethics and politics of his days. He is considered the founder of formal logic.

  5. Senate

    Carthage's political structure is not well known as sources are scarce and for the most part sketchy and biased but it would appear that the great city's government borrowed from monarchic (kings, suffets), aristocratic (senate) and democratic (people's assembly) systems. Phoenician cities such as Byblos, Sidon or Tyre chose early to have kings. Phoenician kings ruled by hereditary power surrounded by councillors, usually chosen among the wealthy and with the support of a people's assembly.

  6. Suffets

    Title of Carthage's highest judge-magistrates. They held power for one year. Suffets were in Carthage what consuls were in Rome. According to some ancient sources several suffets ruled in Tyre for some ten years in the 6th century BC. For the record, consulship appeared in Rome in the 5th century BC.

  7. Popular assembly

    The majority of Carthage's population consisted of citizen with few possessions. Craftsmen formed an intermediary class. A minority of well-off merchants played an important part in the management of city affairs. Slaves and freedmen did not have any political rights; conversely, some “foreigners” succeeded in obtaining civic rights, especially in the event of service rendered to the city during a conflict for instance. The “popular assembly” referred to in Aristotle's text appears to include only free men. The citizens were summoned by the suffets and/or on the occasion of exceptional events such as wars, natural disasters or epidemics. From the 3rd century BC, those citizens also elected the generals as they did the suffets. According to Polybius, this indicated a rise in the assembly's powers in the 3rd century BC.

  8. Diodorus Sicilus (c.90-c.20 BC)

    Greek historian. Having visited Europe, Asia and Egypt, he settled for good in Rome. He left us a considerable body of work, one of the densest on the societies he was able to observe. Written in Greek, this work counts some forty books which represent a first attempt at a universal history, from earliest times lost in a haze of mythology to Caesar.

  9. Punic Wars (264-146 BC)

    Set of wars opposing Rome to Carthage during just over a century. First Punic War (264-241): Rome broke its treaties with Carthage to intervene in Sicily where the Greeks were exposed to Carthaginian pressure. An initial naval victory was followed by the failure of the African expedition that followed (255) and further naval defeats but Rome won a decisive battle in 241. Carthage signed a peace treaty, paid a war tribute and renounced a part of its territories among which Sicily. Rome seized the opportunity of a revolt of Carthaginian mercenaries to seize Sardinia and Corsica but Carthage undertook the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula. Second Punic War (218-201): resulting from the growing rivalry between the two powers this conflict - which saw Italy invaded by Hanibal and Rome's legions thoroughly trounced (see chapter on The cult of Apollo) – still concluded on a second Carthaginian defeat at the hands of Scipio Africanus. Carthage must pay a tribute, surrender Spain, and its fleet and commit to never undertaking a war without Rome's assent. Third Punic War (149-146): The conflict between Carthage and Massinissa (c.238-c148) king of a unified Numidia lead to Carthage rearming in breach of the 201 treaty. Isolated, Carthage was defeated and raised to the ground.

  10. Mercenary War (autumn 241-end 238 BC)

    Revolt lead by the foreign (Lybian, Numid, Iberians, Celts) fighters in the Carthaginian army because they were poorly paid prior to demobilisation.

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AccueilAccueilImprimerImprimer Elkbir Atouf, Professor at the University of Agadir (Morocco) Paternité - Pas d'Utilisation Commerciale - Pas de ModificationRéalisé avec Scenari (nouvelle fenêtre)