Honouring the gods in the classical Mediterranean realm and on its fringes

The imperial administration template vs the Christian thesis of the single god

At the beginning of the 3rd century to counter relativist argumentations, Origen[1] fell back on Babel and the « angels of the nations ». Diversity, to him, is of necessity secondary, it comes about after humans, remote from the East and « its light » chose in their pride to climb the heavens by building a clay tower that soon collapsed. In this context, the angels take up the role devolved by Symmachus to the genii of towns and cities. But angels are not gods. The list of gods provided by Celsus is revealing of the way in which he shifts from a classical analysis of the diversity of customary norms to a different type of analysis for the apportioning or allocation of the divine entities within a global geographic and geopolitical space.

In the framework of a theologico-political polemic belonging to the first half of the 20th century, Erik Peterson compiled the record of Pagano-Christian propensities towards a metaphor of the divine in terms of imperial administration. On the Christian side, the object, notably in the wake of Philo of Alexandria[2] (Decalogue 61) and Origen (Contra Celsum VIII, 35) is as much to resolve the problem of the status of angels in their relation to the Single God as to attack non-Christian gods. Peterson quotes the Pseudo-Clementine Writings X 14,2 that provide the theory for this approach: « For as there is one Caesar, and he has under him many judges, for example prefects, consuls, tribunes and other officers, - in like manner, we think, that while there is one god greater than all, yet still that these gods are ordained in this world, after the likeness of those officers of whom we have spoken, subject indeed to that greater God, yet ruling us. »

Half a century later, Arnaldo Momigliano showed how this line of thought arose in the context of a pagan reaction to the Christian ideology of a sovereign single god: the idea of Augustus[3]' empire as a providential preparation to the dissemination of Christianity was an idea developed by early Christian thinkers at a time when Christians were still the victims of persecutions. This idea appeared in a work by Saint Justin which has been lost, it was developed by Origen then reprised notably by John Chrysostom[4] and Ambrose. Momigliano notes Celsus' position and his vision of an empire protecting diversities and nuances, that is both religious pluralism and the nations' particularities. This idea was to be developed and systematically updated by Julian[5]: in Against the Galilaeans, his unnamed and unnameable god had deputed the Sun to be universal sovereign whereof all the other gods were subordinated features. According to Momigliano, this pagan theology of the empire could arise only from a reaction to Christianity.

The nub of the problematics of apportionment of protecting gods between cities and nations did not originate first in the Greco-Roman tradition. Only when up against Christianity's claims did polytheist thinkers end up constructing « supra-national » pantheonic models. Or, more simply put, only then did this most dubious assumption took shape according to which Christianity and its contemporary paganisms were culturally autonomous and brutally conflicting phenomena.

  1. Origen (c.185-c.253)

    Theologian born in Alexandria where his father was martyred to death during anti-Christian persecutions, counted among the Church Fathers. Confronting pagan authors, he stood as the heir to his master Clement of Alexandria and his merits, which earned him many disciples, are vaunted by his biographer Eusebius. His literary output is impressive and founded in the systematic reading of the bible – in Hebrew and in Greek - yielding a scholarly and sometimes allegorical commentary.

  2. Philo of Alexandria (c.20 BC-c.45)

    Hellenized Jewish philosopher, born to a wealthy family, he was a leading exponent of the Alexandrian School whose work rested on a commentary of the Torah (Pentateuch) on the basis of Hellenistic categories. Beholden to the belief in one creator god and its chosen people, he nevertheless drew many elements from Greek schools of thought to express the world and the relationships between men. His work greatly influenced 2nd century Christian thinkers, notably Clement of Alexandria and Origen.

  3. Octavian-Augustus (63 BC- 14 AD)

    Caesar's adopted son and first Roman emperor, he reigned from 27 BC (date at which the Senate granted him the title of Augustus) until his death. By birth, he was named Caius Octavius but, being related to Caesar (his mother was the dictator's niece) he was adopted by him in his will. He then became Caius, Julius Caesar Octavianus. In order to impose his power in Rome in 43 BC, he joined Lepidus and Mark-Antony to form the second Triumvirate. In 36 BC, Lepidus was sidelined. In 32 BC, the political alliance with Mark Antony was terminated as the latter firmly entrenched in Egypt, sided with Cleopatra, queen of Egypt. In 31 BC, at the battle of Actium, Octavian leading troupes from Italy and the Western provinces was victorious over Mark-Antony and his ally the queen of Egypt. Thereafter, he remained alone at the head of the state. Become Augustus in 27 BC, he pooled in his hands several powers: supreme command of the provinces and the armies therein, tribunal powers and the consular power he contrived to hold on to for several years. These vast powers enabled the emperor to undertake an ambitious politics towards the consolidation of military borders, and the transformation of the Roman Empire's politico-administrative structures.

  4. John Chrysostom (c.354-407)

    Archbishop of Constantinople in 397, his name means “golden mouthed”. He was born in Antioch in an aristocratic family of Christian persuasion and educated in the Greek tradition. In his youth, he had to suffer abuse from Arius' disciples spurned by Christian communities. He applied his gifts to the inclusion of the Gospel message within society and aimed to defend doctrinal orthodoxy – even though some of his propositions were considered questionable by his opponents. He had a number of confrontations with the political power.

  5. Julian a.k.a Julian the Apostate (331-363)

    Roman emperor (361-363). Nephew to Constantine, sidelined in family strife, his education was steeped in Greek classical works. In 355, on return from his Anatolian exile he became acquainted with Basil of Caesarea in Athens where he continued his education. A deft strategist and administrator he was noted for his defence of the empire against the Franks. Become an emperor, he proclaimed an edict of religious toleration but forbade the Christians to teach and sought to models the cults on Church practice. He wrote Against the Galileans, promoted a rapprochement between Jews and Helens and proposed to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem. He died as he was leading a campaign against Persia.

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