Honouring the gods in the classical Mediterranean realm and on its fringes

A member of the first generation of Muslims, that of the Companions of the Prophet of Islam. He is considered the father of Quranic exegesis in the Muslim tradition. He is remembered for the public teaching he delivered on a whole range of legal questions, historical reports, poetry.

Shaykh al- Mu'taman Abu al- Makarim Sa‘d-Allah Jirjis ibn Mas‘ud was a priest of the Coptic church. He is best known as the author of the famous work entitled Tarikh al-Kana'is wa-al-Adyirah (History of Churches and Monasteries), which he wrote in the 13th century. The value of the work extends to the general historical background of these religious institutions and throws a great deal of light on the geography of medieval Egypt. It was wrongly ascribed to Abu Salih the Armenian, under whose name the anonymous manuscript appeared not as author but as owner.

Cosmographer and geographer born in Qazwin, he significantly influenced these two fields. He is the author of two works: Adjā'eb al-makhlouķat wal hayawanat wa- ghara'ib al-mawdjoudāt («The Wonders of Creation and the Oddities of Existence ») ; Cosmography.

Persian dynasty founded by Cyrus the Great c. 550 BC.

Adon means “master”. Adonis was a Phoenician god and the tutelary divinity of Byblos. His cult was upheld in the classical world. Adonis was the god of vegetation and rebirth. Born of Myrrha (a godess changed into a tree to protect her from the vengeful father she had tricked into the pregnancy), Adon was adopted by Aphrodite who entrusted him to Persephone, the presiding goddess of the underworld. In love with him, the latter refused to return him. Adjudicating the case, Zeus allotted his ward for 4 months each to Persephone and Aphrodite, leaving him to choose whom to spend the remaining time with (in the event, Aphrodite). He was killed by a boar whilst hunting. Red roses and red anemones are associated to his death and Aphrodite's desolation. Adonis reflects nature's cycle with its four month sleep before returning to life. Venus and Adonis' love story has inspired many artists.

Son of Philip II of Macedon, king from 336. By the age of thirty, he had created one of the largest empires of the ancient world. He remained undefeated in battle and is considered one of history's most successful commanders.

The name given King Esmunazar's mother and which means “priestess of Ashtart”. More broadly, it may mean “the goddess Astarte's people”.

As Simon's brother he belonged to Jesus' inner circle. In John's gospel he is even first mentioned as one of John the Baptist's companions: it is through his reports that Simon would have come to know Jesus (Jn 1: 37-42). According to the Apocryphal Acts' accounts (parts of which survive) and data from the early Christian authors (2nd to 4th century), Andrew seems to have conducted his mission around the Black Sea and he probably died in Patras in the year 60.

Born in an aristocratic Macedonian family he served as a general in Philip II of Macedon's army. Father to Seleucus I Nicator who, become king, founded and named 16 cities after his father, including the Syrian city of Antioch (now situated in modern Turkey).

First Father of the Syriac Church, given the byname of “Persian Sage”. Details about his life are inferred from his writings. He was the first to speak of the institution of the “sons and daughters of the Covenant” which gathered together consecrated celibate Christians staying in the world. He may have been the superior of this community and held high office in the Persian church. His work consists of 23 treatises, letters or sermons called Demonstrations or Expositions; written between 336 and 345 they discuss God, creation, the Trinity, baptism... The last letter was written during Saphur II of Persia's bloody persecution against the Christians (winter 344-345). This work written in a simple but exquisite style supporting a natural and smooth argumentation inspired the Greek Fathers for their synthesis of Christian doctrine.

Daughter of Zeus and Dione, goddess of love, beauty and fecundity. Forcibly married to Hephaestus, an ugly, club footed god, she is famed for her flighty nature. Eros was born of her union with Ares, the god of war.

Greek god, son of Leto and Zeus, one of the twelve Olympian deities.

Son of Leto and Zeus, twin of Artemis. He stands among the twelve major Olympian divinities. According to some myths, Artemis helped her mother give birth to Apollo, thus accounting for her being the goddess of childbirth. Apollo boasts numerous attributes. He is the god of light, the sciences and the arts, poetry and divination. He is also a hunter god, keeper of flocks, god of eternal youth, of medicine and of beauty. He is besides a violent, nocturnal god the god of sudden death.

Grammarian, historian and mythographer who lived in Athens. The major work attributed to him, entitled the Bibliotheca or the Library [on the history of the gods and heroes of legends from Argos, Thebes and Attic]. However, there is no common feature between this latter work drafted some two or three centuries later and the fragments written in his days.

Greek philosopher; for over twenty years Plato's disciple, he would thereafter distance himself from his master's theses. His writings and thoughts have deeply influenced the entire European philosophical tradition. A polymath he was interested in both arts and sciences and put forward theoretical bases for the latter which he sought to underpin with empirical research. He developed fundamental thinking on the ethics and politics of his days. He is considered the founder of formal logic.

God of classical Greece. He was venerated at Epidaurus were his cult was extent in the 6th century BC. Weaving heroic and divine strands, the healing hero, became the god of health and medicine. Son of Apollo and Coronis the daughter of Phlegyas king of Thessaly, who, whilst pregnant, had an affair with Ischys, the son of Elatus. Before killing her for her betrayal, Apollo tore the baby from her bosom and entrusted him to the Centaur Chiron who taught him medicine. He then took over his father's role as a healing god and would seek to bring the dead back to life. Zeus saw such pursuits as liable to upset the order of the universe and, with a thunderbolt, killed him. He fathered three sons Machaon, Podaleirios and Telesphoros and six daughters among whom Hygieia, Panacea and Iaso.

The Roman Asklepios.

King of Assyria from 755 to 745 BC.

Divinity of the Phoenician pantheon and goddess to all of Phoenicia. She can be assimilated to Aphrodite / Allat / Athena / Ashtart / Ishtar / Ashtoreth / Aţtart / Athtart / Athirat / Astartu / Astronoë. Goddess of love and fecundity and also of war and the hunt, she is also a celestial goddess with moon and star attributes, the protector of cities and their kings. That is the reason why the kings of Sidon were styled “priest of Ashtart”. The Hebrew Bible mentions her as a pagan divinity connected to the sky, fertility and love.

Daughter of Zeus and of the Titaness Metis, she is the eponymous goddess of Athens and one of the twelve Olympians. She is the godess of war, wisdom, the arts, science and invention. She is also the protector of heroes and of the countryside. Her attributes are the helmet, the aegis, that is the shield bearing the head of Medusa, the golden lance, the olive tree, winged victory, the owl. The Romans know her as Minerva.

Daughter of Zeus and of the Titaness Metis, the eponymous goddess of Athens she is one of the twelve Olympians. She is the godess of war, wisdom, the arts, science and invention. She is also the protector of heroes and of the countryside. Her attributes are the helmet, the aegis, that is the shield bearing the head of Medusa, the golden lance, the olive tree, winged victory, the owl. The Romans know her as Minerva.

Caius Octavius, later Caius Julius Caesar Augustus (27 BC). The first Roman Emperor from 27 BC to 14 AD.

Semitic term meaning “master” or “lord”. The name of this leading god was used for many divinities. Brother and spouse to Anath, master of all, he was the god of heavenly powers and of fertility, the bringer of nourishing rains and of destructive thunder. As master of storms and lightening, he protected sailors. Thunder was his voice and lightening his arrows. Baal is usually presented armed with a lance and with his head crowned with rays evoking the sun.

Semitic term meaning “master” or “lord”. The name of this leading god was used for many divinities. Brother and spouse to Anath, master of all, he was the god of heavenly powers and of fertility, the bringer of nourishing rains and of destructive thunder. As master of storms and lightening, he protected sailors. Thunder was his voice and lightening his arrows. Baal is usually presented armed with a lance and with his head crowned with rays evoking the sun.

Born in Cyprus, he was among the first converts to Christianity and was named an apostle without having been Jesus' disciple. According to Christian sources, he favoured Paul's admission within the early church and accompanied him in his work with pagan populations. However he retired to Cyprus after a disagreement and was martyred by Jews.

Egyptian Bishop from c.525 until at least 577, he was the first Bishop of the cathedral of Saint Stephen, made by converting the temple of Isis in Philae. He was a tireless missionary, and appointed a number of priests to lead the conversion of the Nobatae, and oversaw Christian developments in Nubia in the mid-6th century AD until his death.

Grandson of Eshmunazar, king of Sidon during the Persian period.

He undertook the Campaign of Egypt to break British domination in Eastern Mediterranean and in India. His military expedition had important scientific fallouts. It gave birth to the new science of Egyptology.

The cult of this divinity was without a doubt paramount. She personifies the superior female ruler of stars and moon, heavenly phenomena, rains and thunder. As a Uranian goddess she had, among other roles, the power to grant rains that would fertilise the earth.

Epicurean philosopher, author of a work that has been lost called “The True Word”. What is known of it has come to us in the form of extracts quoted by Origen in his refutation: Contra Celsum.

Famous mostly for his oratory, he was a philosopher and a politician, elected to the office of consul, the highest echelon of a political carrier in the Roman Republic.

Fourth bishop of Rome according to Irenaeus' succession list set in 180. He held office from 88 to 97 according to Eusebius of Caesarea's chronology drafted in the 4th century. In the Christian tradition he is considered one of the Apostolic Fathers and, since the 2nd century, two anonymous epistles addressed to Corinth's Christian community have been attributed to him.

A daughter of the Greco-Macedonian Lagid (or Ptolemaic) dynasty, Cleopatra VII ruled Egypt between 51 and 30 BC., first with her two brothers and spouses, successively Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV, then alone starting in 44 BC. From her relationship with Julius Caesar, she had a son Caesarion, born after the dictator's death and acknowledged as king of Egypt by his political heirs during the fight against the Caesaricides. In 41 she started an affair with Mark Antony which yielded three children: the twins Alexander-Helios and Cleopatra-Selene and Ptolemy Philadelphus. Mark Antony's fall after his defeat at Actium in 31 BC brought about her downfall: after Antony's suicide she also took her own life in 30 BC.

Roman emperor converted to Christianity. At the death of his father Constantius, the empire was disputed by four pretenders; Constantine and Licinius allied themselves against Maxentius who was defeated in 312, the year which dates Constantine's public interest in Christianity. In 313, the Christians were granted freedom of worship and their property was returned to them. In that same year Miximinus Daia had been defeated and committed suicide. Licinius implemented the new religious policy in the East. In 324, Constantine defeated Licinius and restored the unity of the empire under his sole leadership. He advanced the construction of the first Christian monuments such as the Lateran basilica (Rome) or the church of the Holy Sepulchre (Jerusalem). In 330, he established his capital on the site of Greek Byzantium and renamed it after himself as Constantinople.

Known as “the last of the Neoplatonists”, he was last to lead the School of Athens. He represented a fresh attitude ready to question dogma.

Roman emperor from 284; in order to meet the internal and external challenges the Empire faced, he shared power with Maximian, Galerius and Contantius Chlorus. These dispositions are known as the “Tetrarchy”. He reorganised the imperial administration and secured the borders, notably during a campaign against the Sassanids. In 303-304, four edicts launched a vast campaign of Christian persecutions: cult places were destroyed, Christians stripped of their charges, clergy arrested, torture commonly used. Diocletian freely abdicated in 305.

Bishop of Tarsus in Cilicia, exegete and founder of what became known as the School of Antioch. An ascetic, he supported first as a layman then as a priest the Nicene understanding of Christianity against Constantius' Arian bishops. He took part in the 381 Constantinople Council and was one of John Chrysostom's masters.

Greek historian. Having visited Europe, Asia and Egypt, he settled for good in Rome. He left us a considerable body of work, one of the densest on the societies he was able to observe. Written in Greek, this work counts some forty books which represent a first attempt at a universal history, from earliest times lost in a haze of mythology to Caesar.

God of vine and wine. Some Greek authors give him as the son of Zeus and Persephony or Isis. Others have him as a child of Demeter or some other divinity. He is often shown crowned with vine branches and holding a bunch of grapes. He can ride a number of animals: goat, panther, donkey.

Son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia, second wife of Augustus who adopted him. He was also the brother of the Emperor Tiberius, and the father of Emperor Claudius.

The king of the gods. He is styled “master of the world”. El means first. He is the creator of the earth, thereby the father of gods and men. All of Phoenicia's people honour him with the title of Sydyk, the Just. On earth, El is seconded by his vizier Baal. He is associated to Greek god Chronos. Three of Sydyk's sons (Phoenician Cabeiri or Kbrim) are known: Shahar (dawn) and Shalim (dusk), known in classical mythology as Castor and Pollux the Dioscurii, and the youngest of them all, Eshmun (meaning the eighth), who is associated to Asclepius.

Well travelled, residing some time in Jerusalem, Mecca and Yemen, El-Firuz Abadi is best remembered for his Al-Qamus Al-Muhit ("Comprehensive Dictionary").

Sumerian god of fertility and intelligence. He was associated to fresh and running waters that were all supposed to spring from a water layer thought to surround the world. One and the same as Akkadian Ea, Enki operates as creator of mankind, along with other gods.

Poet and theologian born in Nisibis, also a deacon. He founded a school of theology in Edessa (today's Urfa, Turkey) which was attended by Christians come from Persia where they were persecuted. His biblical exegesis, his, sermons and his hymns have been preserved in Syriac. Ephrem sought to ensure the predominance of Christian truth over positions held by pagans, Gnostics or others rejecting Nicene orthodoxy. The Christians gave him the byname of “Harp of the Spirit” and made him a Doctor of the Church.

King of Assyria from 680 to 669 BC. His name Aššur-ahhe-iddina means “Ashur has given a brother to me”. Son of Sennacherib, he re-built Babylon which had been destroyed by his father and adopted a policy of appeasement towards the city's people. He had himself called “governor of Babylon”, like his grand-father Sargon II. He pushed the limits of his empire to the northern banks of Egypt.

King of Sidon during the Persian period.

Son of King Tabnit, king of the two Sidons in the 5th century BC, at a time of Persian domination. His sarcophagus was discovered in 1855 in Magharat Tabloun, near Sidon.

He was trained by Pamphilus one of Origen's most distinguished disciples. He fled to Tyre then to Egypt during Diocletian's persecution and returned to Palestine only to side with Arius. He was condemned at the 325 Council of Antioch but subscribed to the anti-Arian creed passed at the Council of Nicaea in 325. However he remained in sympathy with Arius and, thanks to Constantine's favour, got the better of those bishops seeking to incriminate him. His massive output embraces many disciplines: theology, exegesis, history, apologetics...

See biography in part 2 of this course.

Roman emperor who shared the office with his brother then his two nephews from 364 to 378, when he died on the battlefield. He ruled over the Eastern Roman provinces, diminished by Persian conquests in Mesopotamia and in Armenia, and made Constantinople his capital city. He defeated self-appointed emperor Procopius but had to fight the Goths. In religious matters, he persecuted the pagans and favoured the Arians against the Niceans.

Adoptive son of Augustus then of Tiberius, he is the father of Emperor Caligula. He died in the course of a military expedition in the East.

An Amazigh divinity corresponding to Mars in Rome mentioned by Corippus and later by Al Bakri.

The chief god in Phoenician and Syrian religions. The god of fertility, thunder and rain, he is represented with a beard and is recognised at his animal symbol, the bull.

Brother of Zeus who released him from his father's stomach. He dwells underground, watching over the crossing of the Styx, sceptre in hand. He rules over all that is under the earth.

Carthaginian general belonging to the powerful Barcid family. He led Punic forces into Spain as from 221 BC. The seizure of the Spanish city of Saguntum in 219 was the starting point to the Second Punic War (218-201 BC). The leading light behind the great Carthaginian victories in Italy during the second phase of the war, Hannibal was finally defeated by Scipio Africanus in Zarna (202 BC). After the end of the war he was elected as a suffete in Carthage in 196 BC but soon forced into exile by the party favouring a compromise with Rome. He first found refuge with Antiochus III of Syria who was at war with Rome but after the latter's defeat and the subsequent Treaty of Apamea (188 BC), he moved to Bithynia whose king Prusias I betrayed him; facing the threat of being handed over to the Romans Hannibal chose to kill himself.

Carthaginian navigator who explored part of the African Atlantic coast line. The date, sometime between the 6th and 5th century is not known. His voyage was described in Punic language on a stella deposited in the temple of Baal-Hamon in Carthage. The original is not known but a Greek version of the account has been preserved.

“Prophet” sent, according to some Muslim traditions, to the people of Ashab al Rass who, it is said killed him before being destroyed themselves.

Son of the titan Hyperion and the titaness Theia. According to most authors he embodies sun and light. His mythology is separate from that of Apollo, god of the sun. His business was to supervise men and gods alike from his quadriga.

Wife and sister to Zeus, thus daughter of Rhea and Cronus. She is essentially the goddess of women and marriage. A majestic, jealous and solemn figure, her major emblems are the peacock and the cow. Many stories show her as vengeful, notably towards Zeus's lovers and offspring.

Hercules to the Romans. Hero whose numerous adventures are well known, not least his “Twelve Labours”, set all around the Mediterranean Basin. Roman Hercules' adventures are set in Italy.

Heracles to the Greeks. Hero whose numerous adventures are well known, not least his “Twelve Labours”. Roman Hercules' adventures are set in Italy.

Heracles to the Greeks. Hero whose numerous adventures are well known, not least his “Twelve Labours”. Roman Hercules' adventures are set in Italy. The Libyan Hercules is mentioned by Sallust in his Jugurthine Wars where he is associated with Melqart but recent findings suggest these latter names given to an earlier indigenous divinity (Paul Cordier).

The Greek god of travellers, the messengers of the gods. This name has been given by archaeologists to the two-headed statue discovered at the turn of last century. It is no longer called thus.

The “father of history” (in Cicero's words) proposes that the cult of Poseidon originated in Libya whence the Greeks borrowed it (Book II, 50). The information gleaned in the course of his extensive travelling also ranks him among the first geographers. We owe him the first text of Greek literature defining the various forms of government, the first text of political thought. In his Histories, III, 80.1 he puts in the mouth of three Persians (King Darius and his generals Ótanes and Megabizo) the benefits and harms of the monarchy, democracy and oligarchy. According to him the cult of a marine god was averred among the Libyans long before the foundation of Carthage: “those who dwell round the lake Tritonis (Gulf of Gabes), he wrote, sacrifice most of all to Athene, and next, to Triton and Poseidon” (Histoires, IV, 188).

The “father of history” in Cicero's words proposes that the cult of Poseidon originated in Libya whence the Greeks borrowed it (Book II, 50). The information gleaned in the course of his extensive travelling also ranks him among the first geographers. We owe him the first text of Greek literature defining the various forms of government, the first text of political thought. In his Histories, III, 80.1 he puts in the mouth of three Persians (King Darius and his generals Ótanes and Megabizo) the benefits and harms of the monarchy, democracy and oligarchy. According to him the cult of a marine god was averred among the Libyans long before the foundation of Carthage: “those who dwell round the lake Tritonis (Gulf of Gabes), he wrote, sacrifice most of all to Athene, and next, to Triton and Poseidon” (Histoires, IV, 188)

Latin poet, author of Satires, Epodes, Odes, Epistles. In his youth he joined the ranks of the Caesaricides, Brutus and Cassius, the former entrusting him with a legion at the battle of Philippi (42 BC). Thanks to an amnesty, he was able to return to Italy after the defeat but he was destitute. Thanks to poet Virgil's friendship, he too became a protégé of Maecenas an art lover close to Octavian. In 17 BC, with a solid literary reputation to his name, he was invited to compose the Song of the Ages (Carmen Saeculare) solemnly interpreted on the occasion of the Secular Games by choirs of young men and women drawn from the Roman aristocracy.

Daughter of Asclepius and Epione, she was the goddess of health, cleanliness and hygiene. Her name means health and she embodies preventative health. Her symbol is a cup with a snake twined around it; it will become a much used symbol of pharmacy.

Daughter of Asclepius and Epione, she was the goddess of health, cleanliness and hygiene. Her name means health and she embodies preventative health. Her symbol is a cup with a snake twined around it; it will become a much used symbol of pharmacy.

Neoplatonist philosopher considered one of this school's leading lights after Plotinus and Porphyry. The challenge presented by the advances of Christianity in their days' society lead the neo-Platonists to consider revisiting Egyptian sources as one way to reenergise philosophy. Iamblichus did so by providing a theoretical grounding to theurgic rituals, that is to exercises seeking union with god.

Bishop of Antioch who according to some texts in the Christian tradition succeeded Peter the apostle. He emerges as active in his support of nascent communities. He was arrested during Trajan's reign and died a martyr thrown to the lions.

Goddess of fertility, of love and fecundity in Sumer. Her origin is connected with the desert. Her beauty is legendary and enabled her to seduce Enki and enrol his support. He granted her many powers.

Son of Iphicles and Automedusa, he was Heracles' nephew and his faithful companion. He drove his chariot and helped him in several deeds such as the Lernaean Hydra, the Erymanthian Boar and the Cattle of Geryon as well as in the Argonauts expedition. After his death the gods allowed him to return to earth for an hour only in order to rescue Heracles's children from danger.

One of Zebedee's sons also known as James the Greater. He and his brother John were called “the sons of thunder” (in Greek Boanerges Mk 3:17) by Jesus – a name that hints at their nature but also at their importance within the group of his disciples. Of Jesus' close friends, James is the only one whose death is recorded in the New Testament (Acts 12:2).

In chapter 21, which is an addition to the gospel's original text, the author is identified with “the disciple whom Jesus loved” (Jn 21:24) and whose name is never mentioned. From the second half of the 2nd century, the patristic tradition (Irenaeus of Lyons, Clement of Alexandria) name him as John and identify him with one of Zebedee's sons, the brother of James. Considered the author of the book of Revelations as well as other New Testament texts (John's three epistles) he is thought to have died at a great age in Ephesus at the very beginning of the 2nd century.

Archbishop of Constantinople in 397, his name means “golden mouthed”. He was born in Antioch in an aristocratic family of Christian persuasion and educated in the Greek tradition. In his youth, he had to suffer abuse from Arius' disciples spurned by Christian communities. He applied his gifts to the inclusion of the Gospel message within society and aimed to defend doctrinal orthodoxy – even though some of his propositions were considered questionable by his opponents. He had a number of confrontations with the political power.

Charismatic preacher active in Palestine at the time of Jesus. John was renowned for his religious message but even more for his rite of immersion in the waters of the Jordan; hence his byname of Baptist, who baptises (literally who immerses from the Greek verb baptizō = to immerse). His earlier life is shrouded in mystery: the story of his birth as retold in the Gospel of Luke is a legend. Christian sources sought to present John the Baptist as Jesus' forerunner. The historic existence of the man is confirmed by the historian Flavius Josephus who mentions him in his Antiquities of the Jews (XVIII, 5, 2). It is very likely that John died in the early thirties executed on order of Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee and Perea.

Roman emperor (361-363). Nephew to Constantine, sidelined in family strife, his education was steeped in Greek classical works. In 355, on return from his Anatolian exile he became acquainted with Basil of Caesarea in Athens where he continued his education. A deft strategist and administrator he was noted for his defence of the empire against the Franks. Become an emperor, he proclaimed an edict of religious toleration but forbade the Christians to teach and sought to models the cults on Church practice. He wrote Against the Galileans, promoted a rapprochement between Jews and Helens and proposed to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem. He died as he was leading a campaign against Persia.

Consul from 59 BC, the conqueror of Gallia Comata.

Roman Emperor. Already during his uncle Justin I 's reign he became the chief power in the state. Justin gradually handed over all power to his nephew. Between 521 and 527Justinian became consul, then general-in-chief, in August of the same year Justin died, and Justinian was left sole ruler. The thirty-eight years of Justinian's reign are the most brilliant period of the later empire, reviving Roman glory. His many-sided activity may be summed up under the headings: military triumphs, legal work, ecclesiastical polity, and architectural activity. Overarching it all is the policy of restoring the empire, great, powerful, and united.

Scholar trained at the university of al-Azhar. He studied Arab literature, the Hadith and philosophy. His most important work is Life of Animals (Hayat al-Hayawan, c.1371).

One of the prophets set in the period between Jesus and Muhammad. Some Muslim see him as the first prophet after Ishmael. There are no place or time data about him. Some texts report him casting himself in a fire called 'nar al-Harratayn' in order to extinguish it so as to dispel the cult of fire that had spread among Arabs. He is also connected with the destructive Anqa God wiped out.

Name given collectively to the seven daughters of Astarte/Ashtart and El. They are the gods' midwives and wet nurses, the deliverers of Phoenicia, and known in Greek as the Titanides or Artemides.

Rhetoric teacher, born in a noble Antiochian family, he was educated in Athens from 340 to 348 and taught in Antioch from 354 on; he has authored over 60 speeches in Greek. A steadfast pagan, he practiced divination and was fascinated by theurgy and neo-Platonism. He taught John Chrysostom, Basil the Great and Gregory of Nyssa. His correspondence, rich of several hundred letters is equally famous.

Traditionally identified to Luke the medical doctor and Paul's associate referred to in several of the New Testament texts. Over and above the third canonical gospel, he is also credited with the authorship of the Acts of the Apostles (although in both cases the attribution is second hand). According to the evidence provided in the “Anti-Marcionite Prologue” (a text in Greek probably datable to the mid 2nd century, after Paul's death, Luke apparently worked in Achaea where his books were written; and his death is set in Boeotia at the age of eighty-four.

Roman politician, twice a consul. Known for his considerable wealth, he became a member of the First Triumvirate with Caesar and Pompey. After his second consular mandate in 55 BC, as governor of Roman Syria, Crassus launched a military campaign against the Parthian empire on the eastern frontier of the Empire which ended in his defeat at Carrhae where he died in 53 BC. In 20 BC in a gesture of acceptance of Roman authority the Parthians handed back those aquilae taken from Crasus' legions.

Born in Sicca, North-Africa, this Roman senator and high-ranking civil servant was also a writer, a philosopher and a philologist. His major work the Saturnalia takes the form of the philosophical banquet. Following the model of the Socratic dialogue, his twelve participants address a range of subjects, notably of a religious nature.

Roman consul in 187 BC. He defeated the Ligurian leagues in Northern Italy and undertook the colonisation of the region, through the creation of the Via Aemilia and the foundation of colonies. In 179 BC, he was a censor alongside Marcus Fulvius Nobilior.

Roman consul in 189 BC, he won the victory over the Aetolian League. The fall and pillage of Ambracia were an opportunity to introduce Greek masterpieces in Rome. In 179 during his censorship with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, he restored the temple of Hercules and the Muses in the Circus Flaminius. Friend and protector of the poet Ennius he is considered an adept of Pythagorism.

Roman senator, jurist and philosopher of the end of the republican era. He sided with Pompey's party during the civil war which opposed the latter to Caesar. After the battle of Pharsalus, he was pardoned by Caesar who advanced his career. He nevertheless stood by his republican ideals and plotted with Cassius Longinus a coup against the dictator who died at his hand and those of the other conspirators in 44. Hounded by Caesar's partisans, he fled eastwards. He committed suicide after being defeated at Philippi in 42 BC.

The attribution of the Gospel to an author named Mark is second hand, based on the testimony of Papias bishop of Hierapolis in Phrygia (c. 125 AD), quoted by Eusebius (Ecclesiastical History III, 39, 15). According to this testimony (which obviously sought to link the gospel to the authority of a prime eyewitness, Mark would have written his gospel as an interpreter of Peter (Simon), one of Jesus' first followers. This Mark is often associated to John Mark, Peter's companion and a collaborator on Paul and Barnabas' mission work as mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles and in the Pastoral Letters. Furthermore, the author of the First Epistle of Peter, in fact a pseudepigraphic piece, refers to Mark calling him “my son”. According to church tradition, Mark died a martyr's death in Alexandria, in Egypt at the end of the sixties.

Born in the senatorial order, he remained faithful to Caesar and defended the dictator's political heritage after his assassination in 44 BC, year of his consulate in Rome. After warring against a Republican Senate he formed a political alliance with Lepidus and Octavian in the framework of the Second Triumvirate. The following year, Antony and Octavian defeated the Caesaricides, Brutus and Caius on the plain of Philippi (Macedon) thus putting paid to the Republican party's hopes. The triumvirs then shared the Roman Empire between them handing over Greece and Asia to Antony. In the East, he led a disastrous campaign against the Parthians but had more success in Armenia and Media. As early as 41 BC, Antony had entered into a relationship with the queen of Egypt, Cleopatra who gave him three children. This notwithstanding, on a visit to Rome to establish peace between his partisans and Octavian, he married the latter's sister Octavia in 40 BC. However by 32, the conflict with Octavian had flared up again, which found a final resolution to the advantage of Octavian at the battle of Actium in 31 BC. He sought refuge by the queen of Egypt at Alexandria and committed suicide in 30 upon the arrival of Roman troupes in Egypt.

Abu al-Ḥasan ʿAlī ibn al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī al-Masʿūdī was an Arab Historian and writer. Immensely well read and a great traveller, he pioneered the introduction of geographical data in his far ranging accounts of extensive travels. Born in Syria, died in Cairo.

Jurist in Tiberius times. Quoted by Pliny the Elder (Natural History 15.133-135).

Son of Atarsamak, Aramaic king of Arpad.

As in the case of Mark, the attribution of the first canonical gospel to Matthew, the tax collector turned friend of Jesus (Mt 9: 9 and Mt 10:3) associated to Mark's Levi (Mk 2: 14) is second hand and is based on Papias' testimony (Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History III, 39, 16). According to later tradition, Matthew may have led a mission in Ethiopia then in other regions. Data on his death diverge: one testimony suggests that he died a natural death in his old age, another one sets him as a martyr.

Roman emperor from 310 to 313. He shared power with Galerius (d. 311), Constantine I and Licinius. He was defeated by Licinius and died soon afterwards.

Dieu de Tyr attesté surtout durant la période du premier millénaire avant l'ère chrétienne. La racine du nom –MLK- renvoie à la notion de royauté.

Tutelary god (baal) of Tyre, founder of the city and protector of its economic activity. His name means “king (milk/melek) of the city (qart)”. He was the god of prosperity, of industry and of seafaring. He answered for men's survival ensuring a supply of food, clothing and oil. Every year, his re-birth was celebrated. He is in the image of the sun. Every year the priests erected a huge pyre and made an eagle to take flight in his honour, the eagle being a symbol of the fresh start of a new year. The cult of Melqart was celebrated not only in Tyre but also in all Phoenician colonies. In the Greek-Roman world, he is identified to Heracles/Hercules.

Author of the Lisan al-Arab (literally the Arab tongue), an encyclopaedic dictionary that covers Arabic lexicography from the 9th century.

One of the great generals in the service of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I during the Roman reconquest that took place during Justinian's reign. Narses, a Romanized Armenian, was reported to be a very pious man; before accepting supreme command of the army, he built a church and monastery in Cappadocia, where he intended to retire.

In Roman mythology, Neptune was the god of running waters and springs. He was assimilated to Poseidon, the Greek god of oceans and as a result took on many traits and attributes found in Greek mythology. However Neptune originally answered Latin concepts. His transformation into ruler of the waves arises at the time when the Roman power began to consider mastering the Mediterranean sea routes: the Romans sought to transform an ancient fresh water divinity as required by mutation in their civilisation.

Tantalus' daughter in Greek mythology. She boasted her fecundity and the beauty of her children in the presence of Leto who never had but two children, Artemis and Apollo, no less. These two however killed all of niobe's children with their arrows to punish her hubris.

The poet Nonnus of Panapolis, a pagan converted to Christianity or a Christian converted to paganism, hailed from Panapolis (Akhmim) in Upper Egypt. He is the author of the Dionysiaca, an epic account of the god Dionysus composed in the middle of the century. He is also the author of a paraphrase of the Gospel of John.

Caesar's adopted son and first Roman emperor, he reigned from 27 BC (date at which the Senate granted him the title of Augustus) until his death. By birth, he was named Caius Octavius but, being related to Caesar (his mother was the dictator's niece) he was adopted by him in his will. He then became Caius, Julius Caesar Octavianus. In order to impose his power in Rome in 43 BC, he joined Lepidus and Mark-Antony to form the second Triumvirate. In 36 BC, Lepidus was sidelined. In 32 BC, the political alliance with Mark Antony was terminated as the latter firmly entrenched in Egypt, sided with Cleopatra, queen of Egypt. In 31 BC, at the battle of Actium, Octavian leading troupes from Italy and the Western provinces was victorious over Mark-Antony and his ally the queen of Egypt. Thereafter, he remained alone at the head of the state. Become Augustus in 27 BC, he pooled in his hands several powers: supreme command of the provinces and the armies therein, tribunal powers and the consular power he contrived to hold on to for several years. These vast powers enabled the emperor to undertake an ambitious politics towards the consolidation of military borders, and the transformation of the Roman Empire's politico-administrative structures.

Theologian born in Alexandria where his father was martyred to death during anti-Christian persecutions, counted among the Church Fathers. Confronting pagan authors, he stood as the heir to his master Clement of Alexandria and his merits, which earned him many disciples, are vaunted by his biographer Eusebius. His literary output is impressive and founded in the systematic reading of the bible – in Hebrew and in Greek - yielding a scholarly and sometimes allegorical commentary.

Roman poet whose fame was consecrated by such poetry collections as Heroides ("The Heroines"), Amores ("The Loves") Ars Amatoria ("The Art of Love"), Remedia Amoris ("The Cure for Love"). Aged 18 and with his father's agreement, he sailed to Athens. His stay had a lasting impact on his work, notably Metamorphoses, a 15-book compendium written in dactylic hexameter about transformations in Greek and Roman mythology.

Jew born in Tarsus with Roman citizenship, he grew up within a Hellenistic as well as Hebraic culture. A disciple of Gamaliel, a Jerusalem doctor of the law, he took part in the fight against early Christianity. Converted, he was baptised by a Damascus Christian and took the name of Paul. He took an active part in the development of the nascent Christian church, creating many religious communities which he visited and with whom he kept an ongoing correspondence (13 Epistles which form part of the New Testament cannon). Arrested on a number of occasions, he was beheaded in Rome in 67.

Hellenized Jewish philosopher, born to a wealthy family, he was a leading exponent of the Alexandrian School whose work rested on a commentary of the Torah (Pentateuch) on the basis of Hellenistic categories. Beholden to the belief in one creator god and its chosen people, he nevertheless drew many elements from Greek schools of thought to express the world and the relationships between men. His work greatly influenced 2nd century Christian thinkers, notably Clement of Alexandria and Origen.

An antiquarian writer of grammatical, lexical and historical works in Greek. He is chiefly known for his Phoenician History some fragment of which survived.

First century Roman writer, author of an encyclopaedia entitled Natural History (Naturalis Historia) running to 37 volumes. It is Pliny's only work to have reached us and it has long served as a reference in science and technology. Pliny compiled the knowledge of his age in subjects as far ranging as natural sciences, astronomy, “anthropology”, psychology, history, etc.

Platonist philosopher, historian, best known to the general public as author of his “Parallel Lives” of paired Greek and Roman statesmen and military leaders where he shows more concerned with the personality of his subjects and its impact on their behaviour. His influence on West-European Literature was considerable.

Polybius was an elected hipparchus, or cavalry leader in the Achean league facing the Romans at the battle of Pydna (168 BC) which saw the defeat of Perseus of Macedon. He was to be a hostage in Rome for 17 years. During his time in the capital he enjoyed extensive contacts with the Roman oligarchy, and more specifically Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus, the conqueror of Macedon and his host, who entrusted him with the education of his two sons. Later, he would be at the side of one of them, Scipio Aemilianus, at the fall of Carthage, in Africa (146 BC) and of Numantia in Spain (133 BC). The second part of his life was dedicated to the drafting of his magnum opus, The Histories, in which he relates in forty book the history of Rome, Greece and the Eastern states starting with the First Punic War. Only the first five books of this history are extant along with sizeable fragments from the others. He also wrote a biography of Philopoemen (3 volumes), a treatise entitled Tactics, a report on the Equatorial regions and a historical monograph on the events of the Numantine War.

Neptune to the Romans. See this heading.

5th century Greek historian and rhetorician. As a Roman diplomat, one of his missions took him to Alexandria and the Thebaid in Egypt.

Prominent Byzantine scholar, he accompanied general Belisarius in the wars of the Emperor Justinian I, he became the principal historian of the 6th century, writing notably the Wars of Justinian, and the famed Secret History. He is commonly held to be the last major historian of the ancient world.

Latin poet, author of four books of elegies. Whereas love is the central theme of the three first, Book IV includes several poems expounding the origin of Roman and Latium rites and legends. The sixth text in that book is dedicated to the victory of Actium, the other Elegies take their reader back to Rome's beginnings.

Also known as Scipio the African, he was a Roman statesman and general and he masterminded the defeat of Carthage in the Second Punic War. Starting in 211 BC, in his capacity as commander of the Roman forces in Spain, he saw the Punic occupier out of Spain for good in 206, then, having been elected consul in 205, he won the final victory over Hannibal at Zama (North Africa) in 202 BC thereby earning his byname of African. As a consul for the second time in 194, he was legate to his brother Scipio Asiaticus during the war against Antiochus of Syria (193-190 B C.).

Roman aristocrat, polytheist and champion of classical letters and senatorial privileges. An admired public speaker, he stood against the exponents of Christianity, a religion growing exponentially all over the Roman Empire in 4th century. He failed in his campaign to reinstate the altar of Victory in the Curia and his rejected attempts connote the waning of the pagan tradition in Rome.

He was senator and the author of the Annals, a history of Rome written in Greek from its origins until his time. He was one of the earliest Roman historians.

Solar deity of Heliopolis. It is under the fourth dynasty that the title “son of Ra” was included in the sovereign's style. It became standard and gained momentum with the next dynasty.

Bishop of Milan, born in Trier and considered by Latin Christian as a “Father of the Church”. Fully in tune with the Roman establishment, republican minded and averse to theocratic drifts, he saw to it that the Church made the best of the edict of Constantine (312) which granted Christianity the same rights as the pagan cults and was party to the Christianisation of imperial institutions. His sermons and theological treaties are steeped Greek sources.

This god created at the beginning of the Ptolemaic era was the patron of the city of Alexandria. In an Egypt where Greeks and Egyptians merge some of their beliefs, his name is in all likelihood drawn from Osorapis, an Osirisian designation of Memphite bull Apis. The escort of sailors, he also ensures fertility and is supposed to rescue the sick. Represented under the guise of a sovereign, he assumes Zeus' Asclepios and Hades features.

Officer in the Macedonian army Under Alexander the Great; governor of Babylon, he founded the Seleucid dynasty. The kingdom he created covered current Syria and Iran.

This god, created at the beginning of the Ptolemaic era, was the patron of the city of Alexandria. He had the guises of an underworld god (bearded, enthroned and escorted by a Cerberus). His name is in all likelihood drawn from Osorapis, an Osirisian designation of Memphite bull Apis – even though the god had no direct connection with this entity. All in all, he amounts to an Hellenised version of Osiris.

Son of Pompey the Great. After his father's death he became involved in the resistance to Caesar. After the dictator's death, the Senate appointed him prefect of the Roman fleet based in Massilia. Declared an enemy of the people by the Second Triumvirate in 43 BC, he took over Sicily with the support of his fleet. The acknowledged governor of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica in 39, Sextus Pompey was defeated and driven out of Sicily after the battle of Naulochus in 36. He was to die at the hand of Mark Antony's right-hand-man, in Asia Minor where he had sought refuge.

Son of Jonah (Aramaic Bar-Jonas) better known as Peter (from the Greek petros: a rock; in Aramaic Kepha), the name Jesus gave him upon his calling. The gospels place him among Jesus' closest companions among whom he appears to have held a foremost position. His pre-eminence is also connoted by Paul who refers to Peter as one of the “pillars” of the Jerusalem community (the others being James, the Lord's brother and John cf. Gal 2:9). Tradition cites him as the first bishop of Rome, the city where he died a martyr in the early sixties.

Greek philosopher considered as one of the forefathers of moral and political philosophy. He died drinking hemlock as a condemnation for impiety liable to cause social disorder. His teachings were passed on by his contemporaries and disciples as he has left no written work. Plato made him the central character of his Dialogues, Xenophon described him as a moralist and Aristophanes mocked him.

The only data on Stephen is in Christian sources. According to the Acts of the Apostles, he was one of the seven deacons (auxiliaries) chosen by the first Christian community to help the Apostles. Brought before the Sanhedrin (Jewish court), found dangerous, he was stoned to death. In the Christian tradition, he is hailed as the first martyr.

Writer born in Amasaya (Pontus), contemporary of Augustus, author of a book known as Geography describing region after region of the known world of his times.

Scholar and historian of ancient Rome, he belonged to the equestrian order. Under Hadrian, he served as imperial secretary. In charge of the emperor's correspondence, he had access to the imperial archives, where he found precious information towards his first work the De Viris illustribus (published c. 113) and even more so towards The Twelve Caesars (published between 119 and 122). It offers a biography of the first Roman emperors, from Augustus to Domitian, to which was added a biography of Julius Caesar. Nothing is known of his life after he was dismissed by the emperor.

Secondary divinity representing mighty and pure justice.

Roman Senator and historian. Besides Histories and Annals, his major works, he is the author of Agricola, titled after his father-in-law, mainly focusing on that Roman general's campaign in Britain which he substantially helped conquer. During Trajan reign, Tacitus wrote Germania, about the region where the emperor was based before accessing power. He questioned the wisdom of a policy of conquest. In 100, he championed the African province against its governor, Marius Priscus. From 112 and 114, he held the highest civilian governorship, that of the Roman province of Asia.

Originally a Berber goddess of fecundity later adopted by the Phoenicians.

Pagan converted to Christianity; Tatian attempted a synthesis of part of the Greek heritage drawn from Stoicism and elements of the Christian tradition. After the martyrdom of Justin, his master, he broke away from Christianity and was party to the development of the Encratite movement. He is the author of the Diatessaron, a single text harmonising the four Gospel texts and an Oratio ad Graecos [Address to the Greeks] which amounts to an attack on Hellenism and polytheism and where he sets forth his conception of God, the Creation, of man, the Resurrection and the Last Judgment.

The guide to recovery. Telesphorus is Asclepius' third son, always clad in a cape and hood as would people recovering from illness. He is generally found alongside his father and his sister Hygieia.

Antiochian theologian and renowned writer, Theodoret played a foremost part in the Councils of Chalcedon and Ephesus. Elected bishop of Cyrus in 423, he comes over as a pastor who knew, besides his own diocese, the region of Antioch and Mesopotamia. He has left an important body of work including several theological treatises, diverse exegetic commentaries, two histories – one concerning the Church and the other the monks – several works of apologetics and a rich correspondence. A part of his works has disappeared in the wake of two condemnations. Erudite and versed in Greek sciences, he is famous for his clear explanations of Christian mysteries and for his recording of historical data. According to Christian Eastern tradition, he wrote a life of anchorite Maron and his followers. He is also considered one of the founding fathers of the Maronite Church defined at Chalcedon.

Roman emperor (379-395). Under his reign, the Christian religion became the only lawful religion in the Empire.

Bishop of Antioch circa 168, author of a book entitled Apology to Autolycus. A pagan converted to Christianity, he presents the Gospels as words inspired by God and never mentions the person of Jesus in his apologetics.

Son of Livia and Tiberius Claudius Nero, he was adopted by Augustus, the first emperor and succeeded him in 14 AD, reigning until 37 AD.

Anzar's bride. In the Berber legend, Anzar is the god of water. One day that drought was raging the god Anzar was called upon to bring the rain down. The god answered by blackmail: I shall give you water if you give me the most beautiful of your daughters. All the village girls took the chosen one to the river to hand her over to Anzar and the rain started to fall instantly.

Known in English as Livy, he was a historian of ancient Rome, author of a history of Rome Ab Urbe Condita that is from the Foundation of the City. In 142 books it covers Roman history from the origins right up to Drusus' death in 9 BC. His works was structured into blocs of ten books (sometimes five). However only 35 books have reached us: books I to X and XXI to XLV. The others are only known thanks to fragments or later summaries known as Epitome or Periochae.

Roman Consul in 198 BC. He was put in command of the Second Macedonian War which he conducted successfully to victory at Cynoscephalae in 197 BC. In 196 BC, at the Isthmian Games in Corinth, Flamininus proclaimed the freedom of the Greek city states.

Roman consul, later emperor. He was noted for his military prowess leading the legions of Lower Germany. He succeeded his adoptive father Nerva in 98. Enjoying the Senate's support he led military campaigns in Dacia, in Eastern Europe. In 106, he created the Province of Arabia Petraea around Bosra.

The monstrous son of Tatarus and Gaia (or Hera). Half-human half-wild beast, he is covered with wings, his eyes spit fire, his head brushes the stars and, outstretched, his arms reach East and West. His arms are terminated with hundreds of dragons' heads. Vipers slither around the bottom of his body.

The last king of the fifth dynasty.

King Bodashtart's son.

The god of gods in the Greek Pantheon. Son of the Titan Cronus and Rhea, married to his sister Hera and father to a vast progeny. He reigns on Mount Olympus and runs the heavenly forces while being also presented as the protector of men.